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THE    BOYS'    BOOK    OF 
MODEL  AEROPLANES 


Launching  the  Airship. 


THE   BOYS'    BOOK   OF 
MODEL  AEROPLANES 

HOW  TO   BUILD   AND    FLY 

THEM :  WITH  THE  STORY  OF 

THE   EVOLUTION    OF    THE 

FLYING  MACHINE 

BY 

FRANCIS   A.    COLLINS 


ILLUSTRATED   WITH   MANY 

PHOTOGRAPHS   AND    DIAGRAMS' 

BY  THE  AUTHOR 


NEW  YORK 

THE   CENTURY 

1910 


CO. 


Copyright,  1910,  by 
The  Century  Co. 


Published  October,  ZQIO 


Electrotyped  and  Printed  by 
C.  H.  Simonds  &  Co.,  Boston 


TO 

ARNOLD   MILLER   COLLINS 

(Aged  Ten) 

THAN  WHOM  NO   COLLABORATOR  COULD 
HAVE  BEEN    MORE   ENTHUSIASTIC 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
MODELS:    HOW   TO   BUILD   AND   FLY   THEM 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  THE  NEW  SPORT  FOR  BOYS     ....  3 

II.  WHY  THE  AEROPLANE  FLIES  18 

III.  How  To  BUILD  A  "GLIDER"  ....  30 

IV.  BUILDING  THE  MOTOR       .         ....  50 
V.  FINE  POINTS  OF  CONSTRUCTION        ...  68 

VI.  SIMPLE  MONOPLANE  MODELS    ....  84 

VII.  ELABORATING  THE  MONOPLANE         .  .  102 

VIII.  BUILDING  A  BIPLANE 121 

IX.  COMBINING  MONOPLANE  AND  BIPLANE  FORMS  137 

X.  FAULTS  AND  How  TO  MEND  THEM        .        .  143 

PART  II 

THE   HISTORY   AND    SCIENCE   OF    AVIATION 
I.    THE  FIRST  FLYING  MACHINES      .         .        .163 
II.    DEVELOPING  THE  AEROPLANE   ....    175 

III.  THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  OWN   STORY  .        .    193 

IV.  ABOARD  THE  WRIGHTS'  AIRSHIP      .        .        .    224 
V.    OTHER  AEROPLANES  APPEAR    ....    238 

VI.    SUCCESSFUL  MONOPLANES         ....    254 

VII.    AERIAL  WARFARE 272 

VIII.    SPORTS  OF  THE  AIR,  AEROPLANES      .        .        .293 


vii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Launching   the   Airship         ....      Frontispiece 

A  Junior  Aeroclub  with  its  Instructor  in  One  of  the 

New  York  Public  Schools 7 

A  Young  Inventor  in  His  Workshop          ...  14 

Boys  Comparing   Models 14 

The  First  Glider  Weighted  at  the  Front  ...  28 

Dowel    Strips    of   Different    Sizes        ....  33 

Plate  A  —  Diagrams  of  Plan  of  Aeroplane  on  Page  58  38 

A  Coil  of  Cane  or  Reed 42 

Splitting   a  Bamboo   Fish-Pole 47 

Plate  B  —  The  Propeller  before  Cutting  Down  .        .  51 
Model  Constructed  from  Diagram,  Plate  A      .        .58 

Splitting  the  Segar  Box  Cover  to  Build  the  Propeller  63 

Plate  C  —  The  Diagram  of  a  Monoplane  ...  65 

A     Model     Aeroplane     Built     from     the     Drawing 

(Plate   C) 71 

Detail  of  Rudder  and  Propeller  of  Model  Built  from 

Drawing    (Plate   C) 78 

Plate  I  — A  Clever  Folding  Model.    The  Wings  Are 

Broader  than  Need  Be 88 

Plate  II  — A  Model  Aeroplane  Worth  Imitating      .  93 

Plate   III  —  An   Ingenious   French   Model   Made   of 

Umbrella  Wire                                          .        .        .  100 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACK 

Plate  IV  — One  of  the   Simplest  of  Aeroplanes   to 

Construct IOS 

Plate  V  — Too  Large  for  Beginners  but  Will  Make 

Long  Flights "2 

Model  Shown  in  Plate  V  Ready  for  a  Flight  .  .11? 
Plate  VI  — A  Model  with  Both  Good  and  Bad 

Features  .  .  .  .  -  .  .  c  124 

Plate  VII  — A  Good  Example  of  Careful  Designing 

and  Workmanship 129 

Plate  VIII  — An  Effective  Model  with  Wooden 

Wings 136 

Plate  IX  — An  Interesting  Experiment  Along  New 

Lines 139 

Plate  X  — An  Excellent  Monoplane  Capable  of  Long 

Flights 150 

Detail  of  Model  Shown  in  Plate  X    .        .        .  .153 

Plate  XI  — A  Well  Thought  Out  Monoplane    .  .     158 

Plate  XII  — A  Good  Example  of  Tilted  Planes  .     165 

Plate  XIII  — A  Serviceable  Form  Made  of  Wire  .     172 

Plate   XIV  — The   Under   Body    of   the    Monoplane 

Shown  in  Plate  XIII 179 

Plate  XV  —  A  Simple  Model  which  Proves  Steady  in 

Flight 184 

Plate  XVI  — The  Propeller  and  Shaft  of  the  Model 

Shown  in  Plate  XV 189 

Plate  XVII— An  Ingenious  Model  which  Fails  to  Fly     196 

Plate  XVIII  — A  Good  Model  Excepting  That  Its 

Vertical  Rudders  Are  Too  Large        .        .         .201 

Plate  XIX  — A  Simple  Cellular  Form        ...     208 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Plate  XX  — A  Cellular  Type  with  Rudder  and  Ele- 
vating   Plane 213 

Plate  XXI  — A  Complicated  Model  Capable  of  Long 

Flights 220 

Plate    XXII  — An    Interesting    Form    which    Flies 

Backward  or  Forward 225 

Plate  XXIII  — A  Well  Built  Model  Badly   Propor- 
tioned         230 

Plate  XXIV  —  A  Wright  Model  Ready  for  Flight  .  235 
Plate  XXV  —  Another  View  of  the  Wright  Model  .  246 

Plate    XXVI  —  An    Ingenious    Model    which    Rises 

Quickly 251 

Plate  XXVII  — An  Aeroplane  with  Paper  Wings  .  255 
A  Very  Simple  Monoplane  for  Beginners  .  .  262 
Otto  Lilienthal  about  to  Take  Flight  .  .  .267 

A  Machine  for  Testing  the  Lifting  Power  of  Aero- 
planes         274 

Maxim's  First  Aeroplane 280 

The  Machine  on  the  Rails,  as  it  Appeared  in  1893     .     280 

First   Flight   of   the   Wright   Brothers'    First   Motor 

Machine 285 

Three-quarter  View  of  a  Flight  at   Simms   Station, 

November    16,    1904 292 

Front  View  of  the  Flight  of  the  Wright  Aeroplane, 

October  4,   1905 297 


PART  I 

MODELS:  HOW  TO  BUILD 
AND   FLY  THEM 


THE  BOYS'  BOOK  OF 
MODEL   AEROPLANES 

CHAPTER    I 

THE  NEW   SPORT  FOR  BOYS 

IN  the  boy's  calendar  nowadays  the 
aeroplane  season  comes  in  with  sled- 
ding and  runs  all  through  skating,  marble, 
top,  kite-flying,  and  bicycle  time.  The 
delights  of  all  the  old  games  seem  to  be 
found  in  this  marvelous  new  toy.  The  fun 
in  throwing  a  top  cannot  compare  with 
that  of  launching  an  aeroplane,  while  kite- 
flying is  a  very  poor  substitute  for  the 
actual  conquest  of  the  air.  To  watch  one 
of  these  fascinating  little  ships  of  the  air, 
which  you  have  fashioned  and  built  with 
your  own  hands,  actually  rise  from  the 
earth  and  soar  aloft  with  a  swallow's 
3 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

swiftness,  is  perhaps  the  greatest  boy's 
sport  in  the  world.  Certainly  no  new 
game  or  toy  has  ever  taken  such  hold  of 
the  boy's  imagination,  and  in  so  short  a 
time  enrolled  such  an  army  of  enthusiasts. 

Throughout  the  country  to-day  upward 
of  ten  thousand  boy  aviators  are  strug- 
gling with  the  problem  of  the  air-ship. 
Among  these  junior  aeronauts  the  record 
for  height  and  that  for  distance  in  flying 
are  matters  of  quite  as  lively  interest  as 
among  the  grown-ups.  The  great  con- 
tests of  aviators  here  and  abroad  are 
watched  with  intelligent  interest.  Let  a 
new  form  of  aeroplane,  a  biplane  or  mono- 
plane, appear,  and  it  is  quickly  reproduced 
by  scores  of  models  and  its  virtues  put  to 
an  actual  test.  If  a  new  wing  or  new  plan 
for  insuring  stability  is  invented,  a  new 
thought  in  the  steering-device,  or  some 
new  application  of  power,  it  is  instantly 
the  subject  of  earnest  discussion  among 
the  junior  aeronauts  the  country  over. 

Nor  are  junior  aeronauts  merely  imita- 
tors. The  mystery  of  the  problems  of  the 
4 


THE  NEW  SPORT  FOR  BOYS 

air,  the  fascination  of  a  new  world  of  con- 
quest, make  a  strong  appeal  to  the  Amer- 
ican temperament.  With  thousands  of 
bright  boys  working  with  might  and  main 
to  build  air-ships  which  will  actually  fly, 
there  is  certain  to  be  real  progress.  Thou- 
sands of  different  models  have  been  de- 
signed and  put  to  actual  test.  This  army 
of  inventors,  ranging  in  age  from  twelve 
to  eighteen  years,  some  of  whom  will  be 
the  aviators  of  the  future,  cannot  fail  to  do 
great  service,  as  time  goes  on,  in  the  actual 
conquest  of  the  air. 

Within  a  few  months  this  army  of  in- 
ventors has  become  organized  into  clubs, 
and  a  regular  program  of  tournaments  has 
been  arranged.  The  junior  aero  clubs  are 
found  in  connection  with  many  schools, 
both  public  and  private;  they  are  made 
features  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  amusements,  or  they  become 
identified  with  various  neighborhoods. 
Tournaments  are  arranged  between  clubs 
of  different  cities  or  States,  while  an  inter- 
national tournament  is  even  planned 
5 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain. 

The  junior  aero  world  has  its  prizes, 
which  are  scarcely  less  coveted  than  the 
rewards  for  actual  flight.  Some  fifty  med- 
als have  been  distributed  this  year  among 
the  members  of  the  New  York  Junior  Aero 
Club.  Many  elaborate  trophies  will  be 
contended  for  during  1910  by  the  junior 
aeronauts  of  the  country.  A  handsome 
silver  cup  of  special  design  has  been  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  A.  Leo  Stevens,  and  a  sec- 
ond by  Mr.  Sidney  Bowman,  while  similar 
trophies  are  offered  by  Commodore  Mar- 
shall, O.  Chanute,  and  others. 

The  toy  aeroplane  is  not  limited  to  any 
one  season,  as  one's  sled,  kite,  or  skates. 
In  the  winter  months  the  tests  of  flight 
may  be  carried  out  in  any  large  room  or 
hall.  There  is  even  an  advantage  in  hold- 
ing such  a  tournament  in  a  large  school- 
room, riding-academy,  or  armory,  since 
there  is  no  baffling  wind  to  contend  with. 
Already  definite  rules  have  been  laid  down 
for  conducting  these  tests  and  for  making 
6 


D 


THE  NEW  SPORT  FOR  BOYS 

official  records  of  flights.  It  is  possible, 
therefore,  to  compare  the  records  made  in 
different  cities  or  countries  with  one  an- 
other. 

The  junior  aero  tournaments  are  likely 
to  be  the  most  thrilling  experience  in  a 
boy's  life.  The  feats  which  the  world  has 
watched  with  such  breathless  interest  at 
aviation  meets  at  Rheims,  Pau,  or  Los 
Angeles  are  reproduced  in  miniature  in 
these  boys'  contests  without  loss  of  enthu- 
siasm. The  weeks  or  months  of  prepara- 
tion in  scores  of  little  workshops  are  now 
put  to  an  actual  test.  The  model  air-ship, 
which  has  cost  so  many  anxious  and  de- 
lightful hours  in  the  building,  is  to  spread 
its  wings  with  scores  of  similar  air-craft. 
The  superiority  of  the  monoplane  or  bi- 
plane forms  is  to  be  tested  without  fear  or 
favor. 

For  the  young  inventors,  even  for  the 
mere  layman  in  such  matters,  the  scene  is 
extremely  animated.  On  every  hand  one 
sees  the  inventors  tuning  up  their  air-craft 
for  the  final  test.  There  are  lively  discus- 
9 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

* 

sions  in  progress  over  the  marvelous  little 
toys.  The  layman  hears  a  new  language 
spoken  with  perfect  confidence  about  him. 
The  boys  have  already  made  the  pictur- 
esque vocabulary  of  the  world  of  aviation 
their  own.  The  discussion  ranges  over 
monoplanes  and  biplanes,  cellular  types, 
and  flexed  planes,  or  of  rigid  and  lateral 
braces.  To  hear  a  crowd  of  these  enthu- 
siasts shout  their  comments  as  the  air- 
ships fly  about  is  in  itself  an  education  in 
advanced  aeronautics. 

Directly  the  floor  is  cleared,  the  judges 
take  their  position,  and  the  junior  sky- 
pilot  toes  the  mark,  air-ship  in  hand. 
"  One,  two,  three/'  shouts  the  starter, 
and  with  a  whir  the  graceful  air-craft  is 
launched.  The  flutter  of  the  tiny  propeller 
suggests  the  sudden  rise  of  a  covey  of 
partridges.  The  little  craft,  at  once  so 
graceful  and  frail,  defies  all  the  accepted 
laws  of  gravitation.  It  darts  ahead  in 
long,  undulating  curves  as  it  floats  over 
the  invisible  air-currents.  As  in  the  aero- 
planes of  larger  size,  the  length  of  the 
10 


THE  NEW  SPORT  FOR  BOYS 

flight  is  dependent  almost  wholly  on  the 
motive  power.  As  the  little  engine  slows 
down,  the  craft  wavers,  and  then  in  a  long 
curve,  for  it  can  do  nothing  ungraceful,  it 
glides  to  rest,  skidding  along  the  floor  like 
a  bird  reluctant  to  leave  the  sky. 

When  the  time  comes  for  the  races  be- 
tween the  air-craft,  enthusiasm  runs  high. 
Naturally  these  contests  are  the  most  pop- 
ular features  of  the  tournament.  A  line  of 
inventors,  with  their  air-craft,  usually  six 
at  a  time,  take  their  positions  at  the  start- 
ing-line. Each  air-craft  has  been  tuned  to 
its  highest  powers.  The  labor  of  weeks, 
the  study  of  air-craft  problems,  the  elabo- 
ration of  pet  inventive  schemes,  are  repre- 
sented in  the  shining  model.  And  the 
problem  before  the  young  inventors  is 
most  baffling.  There  are  few  models  to 
work  from,  the  science  is  still  so  young, 
and  the  inventor  may  well  feel  himself 
something  of  a  Columbus  in  launching  his 
frail  craft  upon  this  uncharted  sea. 

At  the  signal  half  a  dozen  propellers  are 
instantly  released,  a  whirring  as  of  innu- 
ii 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

merable  light  wings  fills  the  air.  The 
curious  flock  of  mechanical  birds  rises  and 
falls,  dipping  in  long,  graceful  curves  as 
they  struggle  toward  the  goal.  Some 
graceful  little  craft  perfectly  reproducing 
to  the  last  detail  the  famous  Wright  ma- 
chine shoulders  along  beside  a  glistening 
monoplane  which  resembles  a  great  hawk 
with  wings  outspread.  The  next  craft  is 
perhaps  a  complicated  arrangement  of 
planes  of  no  registered  type,  while  the 
craft  made  familiar  by  the  photographs  of 
the  famous  aviators  are  reproduced. 

The  thrill  of  an  aeroplane  race  is  a  sen- 
sation peculiarly  its  own.  It  seems  so 
astonishing  that  the  graceful  little  craft 
should  remain  aloft  at  all,  that  they  are  a 
never-failing  delight  to  the  eye.  The 
varying  fortunes  of  the  race,  the  tempo- 
rary lead  gained  by  one  craft,  to  be  lost  the 
next  moment  to  another,  which  a  second 
later  itself  falls  behind,  and  the  final  heat 
between  the  survivors  in  the  race  as  they 
approach  the  goal,  are  enough  to  drive  the 
average  boy  crazy  with  delight. 

12 


A  Young  Inventor  in  His  Workshop. 


Boys  Comparing  Models. 


THE  NEW  SPORT  FOR  BOYS 

The  rules  for  these  contests  are  rigidly 
observed.  Each  air-craft  is  sent  aloft  by 
its  inventor  or  owner.  The  start  must  be 
made  from  a  mark,  and  of  course  each 
aeroplane  must  toe  the  mark.  There  must 
be  three  judges  for  each  event.  One 
stands  at  the  starting-line  and  gives  the 
word  of  command  for  the  start  of  the  race 
or  flight,  as  the  case  may  be.  A  second 
judge  stands  midway  down  the  course, 
and  the  third  at  or  near  the  finishing-line. 
Each  young  aviator  winds  up  his  craft, 
adjusts  the  power  with  his  own  hands,  and 
sets  the  rudder  for  the  flight. 

The  miniature  air-craft  must  act  in 
flight  exactly  the  same  as  the  great  work- 
ing air-craft  which  carry  men  aloft.  A  toy 
air-ship  must  make  its  flight  in  a  horizon- 
tal position,  and  if  it  turns  over  in  flight, 
even  though  it  flies  farther  and  faster  than 
any  other,  it  is  disqualified.  The  craft 
must  also  fly  in  a  reasonably  straight  line 
toward  the  goal,  and  should  it  be  deflected 
for  any  reason  and  go  off  at  a  tangent,  the 
flight,  no  matter  how  successful  otherwise, 
15 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

will  not  be  counted.  In  case  of  a  collision 
between  air-craft,  the  race  is  repeated. 
The  responsibility  for  adjusting  the 
power,  arranging  the  steering-gear,  and 
giving  direction  to  the  flight  at  the  start 
is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  young  engi- 
neer himself. 

In  measuring  the  length  of  the  flights, 
again,  the  point  at  which  the  air-ship  first 
touches  the  ground  is  fixed  arbitrarily  as 
the  end.  Often  the  little  craft  merely 
grazes  the  ground  to  rise  and  skid  for 
many  feet,  but  in  the  official  count  this 
secondary  flight  is  not  considered.  First 
and  last,  no  one  but  the  owner  of  the  little 
craft  is  permitted  to  touch  it.  The  grace 
with  which  the  ship  lands  is  also  taken 
into  consideration  in  granting  the  prizes. 
Each  boy  is  permitted  three  trials.  As  in 
the  regular  aviation  world,  these  records 
rarely  stand  for  more  than  a  few  days  at 
a  time. 

These  air-ships  are  driven  by  ropes  of 
rubber  bands  which  are  turned  on  them- 
selves until  they  are  tightly  knotted,  when 
16 


THE  NEW  SPORT  FOR  BOYS 

in  unwinding  they  serve  to  drive  the  pro- 
peller around  some  hundreds  of  times. 
The  rubber  is  so  light  that  it  adds  little 
to  the  weight  of  the  craft.  The  motor  is 
of  course  a  makeshift  and  at  best  only 
serves  to  keep  the  propeller  in  motion  for 
a  fraction  of  a  minute.  Experiments  have 
been  made  in  driving  the  propeller  with 
compressed  air,  which  is  carried  in  an 
aluminium  rod  fastened  beneath  the 
planes.  But  the  force  of  thousands  of 
youthful  inventive  geniuses  is  certain  to 
bring  forth  some  new  motive  power. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  American  boy 
that  our  young  aviators  should  feel  them- 
selves disgraced  to  fly  a  model  not  of  their 
own  make.  As  a  result,  miniature  craft  of 
amazing  ingenuity  and  workmanship  are 
being  turned  out  by  the  amateur  aviators 
all  over  the  country.  The  materials  em- 
ployed, such  as  rattan,  bamboo,  or  light 
lath,  and  the  silk  for  covering  the  planes, 
or  the  wires  for  bracing  the  frame,  cost  but 
a  few  pennies.  Toy  aviation  is  one  of  the 
most  democratic  of  sports. 
17 


CHAPTER    II 

WHY  THE  AEROPLANE   FLIES 

THE  aviator  must  venture  in  his  frail 
craft  upon  an  unknown  and  un- 
charted sea.  The  great  problem  is  to  ride 
the  shifting  air  currents  and  keep  the  ma- 
chine right  side  up.  Although  we  cannot 
see  the  air  currents,  we  know  that  they  are 
constantly  ebbing  and  flowing,  piling 
themselves  in  great  heaps,  or  slipping 
away  in  giddy  vortices.  There  is  much 
beautiful  scenery,  high  mountain  peaks, 
deep  valleys,  and  level  plains  formed  by 
these  ever  shifting  air  currents  through 
which  the  aviator  must  steer  his  course 
blindly  as  best  he  may.  A  great  bank  of 
whirling  clouds  driven  before  the  wind 
shows  how  rough  and  tumbling  a  sea  he 
must  navigate. 

The_air  being  a  much  thinner  medium 
18 


WHY  THE  AEROPLANE  FLIES 

than  water  is,  of  course,  far  more  unstable 
and  baffling.  Its  supporting  power  is  not 
only  very  small  but  constantly  varies. 
The  flying  machine  which  will  navigate 
successfully  in  a  perfectly  quiet  atmos- 
phere may  be  unseaworthy,  or  rather,  un- 
airworthy,  when  a  wind  springs  up,  or  the 
shifting  of  the  wind  may  spoil  all  the  air 
pilot's  plans.  To  add  to  his  troubles,  the 
aviator  must  move  among  air  currents 
which  change  and  change  again  in  a 
moment's  time.  As  we  study  the  difficul- 
ties of  air  navigation  we  will  appreciate, 
more  than  ever,  the  wonderful  patience, 
skill,  and  daring  of  the  successful  aviators. 
The  action  of  the  air  currents  had  first 
to  be  carefully  studied  before  flight  be- 
came possible.  Although  the  air  is  invis- 
ible we  now  know  exactly  how  the  air  cur- 
rents act  upon  the  wings  or  planes.  When 
a  plane  surface,  such  as  the  wing  of  an 
aeroplane,  moves  horizontally  through  the 
air,  the  air  is  caught  for  a  moment  under- 
neath it  and  is  pressed  down  slightly  and 
a  moment  later  slips  out  again  from  under 
19 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

the  other  edges  at  the  sides  and  back.  It 
is  this  air  under  pressure  which  yields  a 
slight  support. 

It  has  been  proven  by  many  experi- 
ments that  this  supporting  power  varies 
with  the  shape  of  the  plane  or  surface 
driven  horizontally  through  the  air.  A 
long  narrow  surface  driven  sideways  gains 
much  more  support  from  the  air  than  the 
same  area  in  the  form  of  a  square  or  any 
other  shape.  In  other  words,  a  square 
surface  ten  feet  square  containing  100 
square  feet  will  not  travel  as  far  as  a  sur- 
face twenty  feet  long  and  five  feet  wide. 

The  explanation  is  very  simple.  As  the 
square  surface  moves  along,  the  air  is 
momentarily  compressed  under  the  front 
edge,  but  instantly  slips  off  at  the  back 
and  sides.  As  the  broad  surface  of  the 
rectangular  plane  cuts  the  air,  however, 
few  of  the  air  currents  can  escape  at  the 
sides  while  the  most  of  them  are  crowded 
together  and  held  in  place  until  they  slip 
off  at  the  back.  The  supporting  power  of 
the  plane  is  therefore  in  direct  proportion 
20 


WHY  THE  AEROPLANE  FLIES 

to  the  length  of  the  front  or,  as  it  is  called, 
the  entering  edge  of  the  plane. 

Here  we  find  one  of  the  secrets  of  the 
flight  of  birds.  The  spread  between  the 
tips  of  their  outstretched  wings  is  much 
greater  than  the  width  of  the  wings  them- 
selves. It  also  explains  why  the  Wright 
model,  for  instance,  should  be  so  oddly 
shaped  and  should  move  sideways  like  a 
crab.  If  you  study  the  models  of  the  suc- 
cessful monoplanes  with  this  in  mind  they 
have  a  new  meaning.  The  law  of  the  pro- 
portion of  the  entering  edge  is  very  im- 
portant in  designing  an  aeroplane. 

It  is  so  important  for  the  air  to  be  con- 
fined as  long  as  possible  beneath  the  glid- 
ing plane  that  many  devices  have  been 
tried  to  hold  it.  Some  planes  are  built 
with  a  slight  edge  running  around  the 
sides  and  back,  on  the  under  surface,  to 
hem  in  the  air.  Some  of  the  biplanes  are 
built  with  closed  sides,  the  cellular  form 
they  are  called,  to  keep  the  air  from  slip- 
ping away.  The  box  kite  is  constructed 
with  this  in  view.  The  builder  of  model 
21 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

aeroplanes  will  find,  however,  that  the 
slight  edge  formed  by  turning  the  cloth 
over  the  frame  of  the  plane  is  sufficient  to 
hold  the  air. 

The  flight  of  a  kite,  by  the  way,  appears 
a  very  simple  matter  once  this  law  is  un- 
derstood. The  air  currents  strike  the  kite 
at  an  angle  and  are  deflected  or  carrom  off 
at  exactly  the  same  angle.  A  line  drawn 
through  the  middle  of  this  angle,  exactly 
bisecting  it,  will  give  you  the  direction  of 
the  force  exerted  by  the  wind.  Mean- 
while the  kite  string  holds  the  plane  rig- 
idly in  position.  As  the  kite  darts  from 
side  to  side  it  is  merely  obeying  this  law 
and  adjusting  itself  so  that  its  surface  will 
stand  at  right  angles  to  this  thrust  of  the 
wind.  An  aeroplane  is  simply  a  kite  which 
makes  its  own  wind  or  air  currents. 

The  kite  is,  of  course,  balanced  against 
the  wind  currents  and  kept  more  or  less 
stable  by  its  cord,  but  an  aeroplane  must 
balance  itself.  The  secret  of  insuring  sta- 
bility was  discovered  only  after  years  of 
experience  with  gliders  in  actual  flights. 

22 


WHY  THE  AEROPLANE  FLIES 

The  stability  of  the  aeroplane  depends 
upon  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  on  the  machine.  There  is, 
of  course,  a  center  of  pressure,  just  as 
there  is  a  center  of  gravity  in  every  aero- 
plane of  whatever  form  or  size.  It  may  be 
laid  down  as  a  general  rule  that  a  plane 
traveling  horizontally  in  a  quiet  atmos- 
phere is  kept  horizontal  and  stable  by 
making  the  centers  of  pressure  and  grav- 
ity coincide. 

The  air  currents,  as  we  pointed  out,  are 
never  entirely  at  rest  but  are  constantly 
tilting  the  plane  about.  Hold  a  sheet  of 
stiff  paper  horizontally  and  let  it  fall.  It 
will  flutter  to  the  ground  or  perhaps  be 
twirled  away,  indicating  the  presence  of  a 
number  of  unexpected  air  currents.  The 
aeroplane  which  would  remain  stable  in  a 
perfectly  quiet  atmosphere  must  overcome 
all  these  twists  and  turns.  The  problem 
of  stability  has  not  yet  of  course  been 
solved.  Having  reached  this  stage  in  the 
evolution  of  the  aeroplane  the  aviator 
next  began  to  experiment  by  bending  his 
23 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

wings  or  planes  and  throwing  out  lateral 
or  stability  planes  to  help  him  keep  his 
balance. 

It  was  now  found  that  a  very  little  tilt- 
ing of  the  planes  upward  or  downward 
would  serve  to  right  the  machine  when  it 
leaned  over.  The  secret,  like  so  many 
others,  was  gained  by  watching  the  flights 
of  birds.  You  have  perhaps  seen  a  great 
albatross  or  sea  gull  soar  without  the 
slightest  effort  and  apparently  without 
motion.  Look  more  closely  and  you  will 
see  that  the  tips  of  the  broad  wings  move 
slightly  from  time  to  time,  while  the  main 
body  of  the  wings  remains  rigid,  which  is 
the  great  secret  of  stability  in  flight. 

The  ends  of  the  planes  were  next  made 
flexible,  very  slightly  so,  and  arranged  so 
that  they  might  be  moved  up  and  down  or 
flexed  at  will.  The  flights  made  with  this 
adjustment  were  at  once  brought  under 
control.  New  planes  were  added  before 
and  behind,  and  it  was  found  that  the  ma- 
chine could  be  kept  from  darting  up  and 
down  just  as  well  as  tilting  over  at  the 
24 


WHY  THE  AEROPLANE  FLIES 

ends.  The  aeroplane  was  now  ready  for 
the  installation  of  the  motor. 

The  best  curve  for  the  wing  of  an  aero- 
plane is  an  irregular  curve  drawn  above 
the  horizontal  line.  It  is  not  a  perfect  arc 
of  a  circle  but  reaches  its  greatest  height 
about  one  third  back  of  the  front  edge, 
with  the  rest  of  the  line  slightly  flattened. 
It  is  much  the  same  line  as  is  formed  by 
some  waves  just  before  they  break.  The 
plane  thus  shaped  is  driven  with  the  blunt 
or  entering  edge  forward  or  against  the 
wind.  In  building  the  large  aeroplanes 
this  curve  is  worked  out  with  great  accu- 
racy, but  the  builder  of  model  airships  may 
carry  the  line  in  his  eye. 

As  the  air  strikes  the  entering  edge  of 
this  surface  it  is  driven  underneath  and 
held  there  for  a  moment  before  it  can  es- 
cape from  beneath  this  hollow.  The  sup- 
port of  the  air  is  therefore  greater  than  in 
the  case  of  a  flat  plane,  or  in  fact,  any 
other  form.  The  air  which  passes  over  the 
top  of  the  entering  edge,  meanwhile,  glides 
or  slips  off  at  a  slight  upward  angle,  thus 
25 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

forming  a  partial  vacuum  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  upper  surface.  This  vacuum, 
in  turn,  tends  to  pull  the  plane  slightly 
upward  thus  acting  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  air  which  is  compressed  beneath  it. 

The  planes  thus  constructed  are,  be- 
sides, much  more  easily  controlled  than 
those  of  any  other  shape.  When  the  en- 
tering edge  of  this  plane  is  raised  the 
pressure  of  the  air  beneath  is  increased 
and  the  pull  of  the  partial  vacuum  com- 
bines with  it  to  make  it  rise.  The  difficult 
problem  of  getting  the  aeroplane  aloft  was 
largely  solved  by  this  curve.  Once  aloft, 
such  an  airship  answers  her  helm  much 
better  than  any  other  form. 

This  curve  is  accountable  for  many  of 
the  movements  of  aeroplanes  which  seem 
so  mysterious  to  the  mere  layman.  When 
an  aeroplane  turns,  its  outer  end  rises,  and 
the  more  rapid  is  its  flight  the  greater  is 
this  tilt.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
end  is  moving  more  rapidly  and  the  in- 
creased speed  causes  the  plane  to  lift. 
Many  photographs  of  aeroplanes  show 
26 


WHY  THE  AEROPLANE  FLIES 

them  balanced  at  precarious  angles  while 
making  a  turn.  If  the  plane  is  tilted  too 
high  the  air  currents  slip  out  from  be- 
neath, no  vacuum  is  developed  above,  and 
it  quickly  loses  speed.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  it  be  inclined  downward  it  soon 
loses  the  supporting  power  of  the  air  and 
plunges  down. 

At  every  stage  of  this  development  the 
aviators  are  indebted  to  the  birds  for  in- 
formation. The  successful  aeroplanes 
have  great  width  compared  to  their  depth, 
they  gain  stability  by  flexing  the  tips  of 
the  wings,  and  their  planes  are  arched  up- 
ward and  forward  exactly  as  are  the  wings 
of  a  bird.  The  aviator  arranges  his  center 
of  gravity  after  the  same  general  model, 
below  the  planes  and  well  forward.  He 
places  his  engine  forward,  just  as  the  bird 
has  its  strongest  muscles  in  the  chest,  and 
he  builds  his  frame  of  hollow  tubes  like 
the  bones  of  a  bird. 


29 


CHAPTER    III 


THE  simplest  form  of  heavier-than- 
air  machine  is  the  stiff  card  or  letter 
which  you  may  spin  across  the  room.  If 
you  give  it  just  the  right  twirl  it  will  glide 
on  a  level  for  many  feet.  There  are  many 
ways  besides  of  folding  a  sheet  of  stiff 
paper  which  will  convert  it  into  a  surpris- 
ingly clever  little  airship.  With  a  little 
practice  these  gliders  may  be  made  to  fly 
ten  or  twenty  times  their  own  length, 
which  would  be  a  very  creditable  flight  for 
the  best  aeroplane  models. 

There  is  no  better  way  to  begin  the  con- 
struction of  a  model  aeroplane  than  by 
study  and  experiment  with  these  paper 
ships.  The  most  famous  aeronauts  of  the 
day,  the  Wright  brothers,  Curtiss,  Her- 
ring, and  many  others,  have  spent  years 
30 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  "  GLIDER  " 

working  with  gliders  before  attempting  to 
build  or  fly  an  aeroplane.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  they  discovered  what  form  of  wing 
would  support  the  greatest  weight, 
whether  the  passenger  should  stand  up  or 
lie  down,  how  to  place  the  propeller  and 
the  rudder,  and  hundreds  of  other  details 
which  have  made  possible  the  actual  con- 
quests of  the  air. 

Following  in  their  footsteps,  or  rather 
their  flights,  the  amateur  aeronaut  should 
first  build  and  fly  only  gliders  or  aero- 
planes without  means  of  self-propulsion. 
The  simplest  form  of  glider  may  be  made 
by  cutting  a  broad  oval  from  a  sheet  of 
stiff  letter-paper  and  creasing  it  down  the 
middle.  The  experiment  may  be  made 
more  interesting,  however,  by  cutting  out 
the  plane  like  the  outstretched  wings  of  a 
bird,  as  suggested  in  the  accompanying 
illustration.  Try  as  you  may,  this  sheet 
will  not  fly.  Now  add  a  trifling  weight  to 
the  front  of  the  plane.  This  may  be  done 
by  fastening  one  or  more  paper  clips  to 
the  edge,  pasting  a  match  or  a  toothpick, 
31 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

or  by  dropping  a  little  tallow  or  sealing- 
wax. 

At  first  you  will  underestimate  the 
weight  your  little  airship  will  carry.  Add 
more  .weight  in  the  same  way,  and  test 
its  gliding  powers  until  the  little  airship 
will  glide  gracefully  across  the  floor. 
Keep  the  length  of  these  models  under  six 
inches.  If  you  increase  it  beyond  this,  the 
model  loses  steadiness  and  flutters  about 
ineffectively. 

An  interesting  model  may  be  made  by 
folding  a  sheet  of  stiff  paper  in  an  arrow- 
like  form.  The  idea  is  to  form  a  series  of 
planes  which  will  support  the  weight  of 
the  tiny  craft  and,  at  the  same  time,  enable 
it  to  fly  or  dart  in  a  straight  line.  It  will 
be  found  that  the  vertical  surfaces  lend 
stability  and  keep  the  ship  moving  in  a 
straight  line.  You  will  soon  learn,  in  this 
way,  more  of  the  principles  of  aeroplane 
construction  than  mere  reading  from 
books  can  teach  you.  Be  careful,  mean- 
while, to  remember  just  how  you  have 
launched  the  various  forms  of  models, 
32 


Dowel  Strips  of  Different  Sizes. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  "  GLIDER  " 

whether  you  have  thrown  them  with  an 
upward  or  downward  motion,  and  how 
hard  a  push  you  have  given  them.  The 
skill  you  acquire  in  this  way  will  be  valu- 
able later  on  when  you  come  to  launch 
your  regular  model  aeroplane. 

We  are  now  ready  to  begin  the  construc- 
tion of  the  frames  of  aeroplane  models. 
The  first  model  will  be  merely  a  glider. 
The  frame  and  wings  or  planes  of  an  aero- 
plane are  built  much  the  same  as  a  kite. 
The  idea  in  all  such  work  is  to  combine 
the  greatest  possible  strength  or  stability 
with  extreme  lightness.  Remember,  how- 
ever, that  the  aeroplane  during  its  flights 
is  racked  and  shaken  by  its  motor,  and  is 
likely  to  land  with  a  bump.  The  materials 
used  must  be  stronger  than  in  the  case  of 
an  ordinary  kite,  the  joints  more  securely 
formed,  and  the  entire  structure  braced  in 
every  possible  way. 

The  best  materials  for  constructing 
these  gliders  or  aeroplanes  are  very  cheap 
and  easily  obtained.  At  almost  any  hard- 
ware-store you  will  find  a  variety  of 
35 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

"  dowel-sticks,"  which  seem  especially 
made  for  this  work.  They  are  smooth, 
round  sticks  a  yard  in  length  and  of  a  va- 
riety of  diameter.  The  sticks  three  six- 
teenths of  an  inch  in  diameter  will  be 
found  most  serviceable,  while  the  larger 
sticks  are  just  the  thing  for  the  backbones 
of  your  aeroplane.  These  sticks  will  not 
split  at  the  ends  and  may  be  readily 
worked.  They  cost  one  cent  apiece. 

Some  boys  find  that  the  reed  or  cane 
suits  their  purpose  better  than  the  dowel- 
sticks,  since  it  is  more  flexible  and  a  trifle 
lighter.  The  cane  is  easy  to  work  when 
you  wish  to  build  planes  with  curved  lines. 
It  can  be  readily  shaped  to  any  desired 
form  by  first  wetting  it  and  allowing  it  to 
dry  after  working.  Care  must  be  taken  in 
using  it,  since  the  ends  are  likely  to  split. 
Bundles  of  this  cane  may  be  bought  at 
most  hardware-stores  or  in  department- 
stores.  Enough  material  for  constructing 
a  model  may  be  bought  for  a  few  cents. 

The  lightest  of  all  available  materials  is 
bamboo.  It  is  difficult  to  procure,  how- 
36 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  "  GLIDER  " 

Care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  sides  of  the 
rectangle  exactly  the  same  length  and  the 
joints  closely  and  neatly  finished.  Some 
boys  prefer  to  lay  one  stick  over  another, 
then  wrap  the  joint  tightly  with  thin  but 
strong  linen  thread,  and  over  this  brush  a 
coat  of  thin  glue,  without  using  any  brads 
or  nails. 

In  kite-building,  to  be  sure,  it  would  be 
enough  to  lay  the  strips  over  one  another 
and  fasten  roughly  with  a  tack.  Nor  did 
the  lengths  of  the  stick,  when  covered  with 
paper,  make  much  if  any  difference.  The 
aeroplane,  it  must  be  remembered,  travels 
edgewise,  and,  having  no  guiding  string, 
is  at  the  mercy  of  every  gust  of  wind.  If 
the  frames  are  carelessly  proportioned  it 
will  not  travel  true,  but  is  likely  to  be  de- 
flected. Imagine  a  boat  whose  sides  are 
not  exactly  uniform  trying  to  travel  in  a 
straight  line.  It  would  be  lopsided,  and 
would  roll  and  pitch  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions.  Now  an  aeroplane,  since 
it  travels  in  so  thin  a  medium  as  air,  is  far 
more  sensitive  than  a  boat,  and  it  becomes 
39 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

lopsided  if  its  proportions  be  in  the  least 
inaccurate.  Only  the  greatest  care  in  con- 
struction will  produce  an  air  craft  which 
will  fly  true  and  straight. 

It  makes  little  or  no  difference  in  a  kite 
if  the  ends  project  a  little  and  the  joints 
be  carelessly  made.  Not  only  must  your 
aeroplane  be  perfectly  proportioned,  but  it 
must  be  finished  like  a  piece  of  fine  furni- 
ture. The  question  of  friction  is  a  very 
important  one  in  the  heavier-than-air  ma- 
chine. You  cannot  be  too  careful  to  round 
off  every  corner  and  smooth  every  exposed 
surface.  If  you  have  opportunity  to  see  a 
regular  aeroplane,  a  Wright  or  Curtiss 
model,  you  will  find  that  every  part  of  the 
machine  has  been  sandpapered  and  var- 
nished with  the  greatest  care.  This  is  not 
done  for  the  sake  of  appearances,  but  be- 
cause it  has  been  found  that  the  wind 
striking  against  the  rough  piece  of  wood 
meets  an  appreciable  amount  of  resistance, 
whereas  it  slips  past  a  polished  surface 
with  little  or  no  friction.  Your  aeroplane 
should  be  finished  like  a  violin. 
40 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  "  GLIDER  " 

In  building  these  planes  be  careful  to 
compare  the  lengths  of  the  corresponding 
sides  throughout.  If  you  prefer  to  use 
brads  for  fastening  the  joints  do  so.  The 
dowel-stick  and  bamboo  will  take  the 
brads  with  little  danger  of  splitting. 
When  thoroughly  dry,  cut  away  the  glue 
which  has  squeezed  out,  round  off  the 
ends,  and  sandpaper  with  fine  sand  or 
emery-paper.  If  you  use  brads  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  place  the  joints  in  a  vise 
while  drying.  Should  your  strips  split, 
bore  the  holes  with  a  fine  awl.  Some  boys 
after  drilling  the  holes  merely  tie  and  glue 
the  sticks  together,  using  no  nails  what- 
ever. 

Now  cut  three  dowel-strips  34  inches 
long  and  slightly  sharpen  their  ends,  so 
that  when  brought  together  they  will  form 
a  prism  whose  base  is  about  one  fourth 
their  length.  Next  bend  a  strong  piece 
of  wire  into  a  hook  —  a  hair-pin  will  an- 
swer for  small  models  —  and  fasten  it  in 
the  apex  of  the  prism,  with  the  hook  in- 
side. The  projecting  end  of  wire  should 
43 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

then  be  bent  over,  and  the  three  dowel- 
sticks  glued  and  tied  tightly  together. 

At  the  open  end  of  the  prism  next  fasten 
two  strips  from  end  to  end,  leaving  the 
third  side  of  the  triangle  open.  Now 
fasten  your  two  planes  on  the  open  side  of 
the  prism,  slightly  mortising  the  sticks 
and  gluing  and  nailing  them  securely  in 
position.  To  further  strengthen  the 
prism,  join  the  three  sides  at  the  middle 
with  three  sticks,  forming  a  complete  tri- 
angle. The  prism  thus  braced  will  be 
found  as  strong  as  a  heavy  central  stick, 
besides  being  much  lighter  and  providing 
an  excellent  base  for  the  propeller.  A 
strong  stick  about  half  an  inch  square 
should  be  tied  and  glued  across  the  middle 
of  the  triangle  at  the  base  of  the  prism  to 
support  the  motor. 

The  frame  once  complete,  sandpapered 
and  varnished,  it  is  ready  to  be  covered. 
At  first  this  may  be  done  with  some 
smooth  paper.  Almost  any  thin  material, 
muslin  or  linen,  will  answer  for  the  pur- 
pose, although  white  silk  makes  the  most 
44 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  "  GLIDER  " 

finished-looking  model.  Such  scraps  as 
may  be  found  in  the  family  piece-bag  will 
answer  every  purpose.  In  sewing  the 
cloth  over  the  frame  the  advice  of  some 
big  sister,  aunt,  or  the  mother  may  well 
be  taken.  The  idea  is  to  fasten  the  cloth 
smoothly  and  neatly  over  the  frame,  keep- 
ing the  surface  free  from  creases  or  wrin- 
kles of  any  kind.  Boys  are  likely  to  be 
awkward  with  the  needle.  The  cloth  may 
also  be  glued  over  the  frames.  When  com- 
plete cover  the  planes  with  a  thin  solution 
of  paraffin  dissolved  in  benzine. 

In  attaching  the  planes  or  wings  to  the 
central  axis  of  the  model,  the  larger  stick 
or  backbone  may  be  mortised  neatly,  so 
that  the  sides  of  the  frame  will  be  sunk  in 
flush  with  the  upper  surface.  A  fairly 
good  glider  may  be  made,  however,  by 
merely  nailing  down  the  frames  against 
this  backbone.  The  distance  between  the 
two  planes  is  a  complicated  problem,  but 
the  beginner  had  better  at  first  imitate  the 
model  shown  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
tration. If  the  two  supporting  planes  be 
45 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

too  far  apart  or  too  near  together,  the 
glider  will  fall.  The  amateur  must  experi- 
ment by  changing  their  position  on  the 
central  axis  until  he  hits  the  right  propor- 
tion. He  will  be  able  later  to  carry  this 
proportion  in  his  eye,  and  the  experience 
will  prove  invaluable.  Until  you  have  hit 
upon  the  proper  position,  fasten  them  to 
the  backbone  with  rubber  bands.  These 
permit  you  to  slide  the  planes  back  and 
forth  without  the  trouble  of  nailing. 

Aeroplanes,  unlike  kites,  fly  best  in  a 
perfectly  quiet  atmosphere.  If  you  make 
your  trial  flights  out  of  doors,  select  a 
quiet  day.  A  room,  a  barn,  or  any  large 
interior  will  be  found  better.  In  launch- 
ing your  glider,  hold  it  from  beneath,  so 
that  it  balances,  and  throw  it  forward  with 
a  swift,  steady  movement  of  the  arm.  A 
little  practice  will  make  you  very  expert. 

You  will  now  find  yourself  fitted  to  re- 
produce any  of  the  simpler  forms  of  mono- 
plane models,  several  of  which  are  here 
illustrated.  An  interesting  model  is  made 
by  attaching  U-shaped  wings  to  a  central 
46 


Splitting  a  Bamboo  Fish-Pole. 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  "  GLIDER  " 

axis.  In  making  these  curved  planes  the 
reed  will  be  found  useful.  Other  effective 
gliders  are  made  with  triangular  wings 
fixed  at  a  variety  of  angles.  Remember 
that  the  model  must  be  absolutely  sym- 
metrical. In  attaching  the  frames  to  the 
central  axis,  always  make  the  joints  as 
smooth  and  rigid  as  possible. 

The  weighting  of  the  glider  will  be 
found  to  be  a  very  important  detail.  As  a 
rule  the  gliders  require  a  considerable 
weight  at  the  front.  The  exact  position  of 
the  weight  can  only  be  determined  by  ex- 
periment. The  simplest  way  is  to  wire  a 
nail  or  a  piece  of  metal  to  the  edge  of  the 
frame.  If  your  glider  does  not  balance  per- 
fectly, which  is  likely  to  be  the  case,  this 
fault  can  be  largely  remedied  by  weight- 
ing it.  The  tendency  of  the  glider  is  likely 
to  be  upward,  and  the  weight  serves  to 
keep  it  on  an  even  keel.  When  your  model 
glides  steadily  through  the  air,  without 
rolling  or  pitching,  you  have  constructed 
a  well-balanced  frame.  It  will  then  be 
time  to  take  up  the  problem  of  propulsion. 
49 


CHAPTER   IV 

BUILDING  THE  MOTOR 

A  WELL-CONSTRUCTED  glider 
alone  makes  a  fascinating  toy,  but 
once  the  motor  has  been  installed  it  seems 
almost  alive.  Your  little  craft  will  now 
be  ready  for  new  conquests.  It  will  imi- 
tate the  flights  of  the  famous  aviators, 
contending  with  the  same  problems,  per- 
haps meeting  similar  accidents. 

The  motor  is  the  most  interesting,  as  it 
is  the  most  important,  detail  of  the  aero- 
plane. Although  it  is  possible  to  buy  the 
propellers  for  the  motor,  it  is  advisable 
that  every  boy  should  work  out  this  prob- 
lem for  himself.  An  effective  motor  is 
easy  to  build,  and  costs  practically  noth- 
ing. The  length  of  your  propeller-blades 
should  be  equal  to  about  one  third  the 
width  of  your  largest  plane.  For  this  you 


BUILDING  THE  MOTOR 

will  need  six  strips  of  some  light  wood, 
such  as  pine  or  ash,  although  a  cigar-box 
wood,  if  the  grain  be  straight,  will  answer. 
Cut  the  strips  to  measure  about  half  an 
inch  in  width  and  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
thick.  (See  Plate  B.) 


THE  PROPELLER  BEFORE  CUTTING  DOWN. 

PLATE  B. 

The  strips  should  be  covered  with  a  thin 
glue  and  laid  one  on  top  of  another,  and 
a  very  thin  nail  be  carefully  driven 
through  the  little  pile  at  the  exact  center 
between  the  two  ends.  While  the  glue  is 
still  soft,  turn  the  sticks  on  the  axis  formed 
by  the  nail,  so  that  they  make  a  double 
fan,  spacing  the  outer  edges  about  one 
quarter  of  an  inch  apart.  Be  certain  that 
the  fan  is  regular,  and  then  give  the  nail 
a  final  rap  to  tighten  its  hold  and  keep  all 
the  glued  surfaces  together,  and  set  away 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

to  dry.  If  you  can  prop  up  the  ends  it  will 
be  better  to  put  a  flat-iron  or  other  weight 
on  each  end  to  make  the  strips  glue  to- 
gether tighter. 

The  thrust  or  propelling  power  depends 
as  much  upon  the  curves  of  the  propeller 
as  upon  the  force  with  which  the  motor  is 
driven.  If  the  propeller  be  too  flat,  it  will 
not  take  hold  of  the  air,  while  if  the  pitch 
or  angle  of  the  curve  be  too  sharp,  it  will 
simply  bore  holes  in  the  air  and  create  a 
vacuum  which  is  useless.  The  pitch 
should  be  about  one  in  twelve;  that  is,  if 
the  propeller-blade  be  twelve  inches  long, 
the  curve  should  be  one  inch  high. 

When  the  glue  is  thoroughly  dry  and 
hard  the  projecting  step-like  edges  may  be 
cut  away.  A  flat  chisel  or  an  ordinary 
pen-knife  will  do  the  work.  Be  careful  to 
keep  the  ends  uniform,  since  much  de- 
pends upon  the  balance.  Cut  away  the 
wood  until  the  blades  are  one  eighth  of  an 
inch  or  less  in  thickness,  and  round  off  the 
corners.  The  propeller  should  then  be 
sandpapered  perfectly  smooth  and  var- 
52 


BUILDING  THE  MOTOR 

nished.  You  will  be  delighted  to  find  how 
professional  and  shipshape  the  finished 
propeller  will  be. 

Now  carefully  remove  the  nail  fastening 
the  pieces,  and  you  will  find,  of  course, 
that  it  marks  the  exact  center  and  forms 
a  perfect  axis.  Should  you  need  to  en- 
large this  hole,  do  not  attempt  to  bore  it, 
since  this  may  split  the  wood,  but  burn  it 
out,  using  a  nail  heated  over  a  gas-flame. 
Now  insert  a  stiff  wire  in  this  hole  —  a 
hat-pin  will  answer  —  and  fasten  it  by 
clenching  it  at  the  back  tight  to  the  pro- 
peller, and  fill  up  the  hole  with  glue.  The 
photographs  of  the  propellers  of  various 
models  will  give  you  an  excellent  idea  of 
the  proper  curve. 

Aviators  differ  as  to  the  proper  position 
for  the  propellers  in  toy  aeroplanes.  Here 
is  a  problem  you  must  work  out  for  your- 
self. Some  believe  that  the  propeller 
placed  in  front  of  the  planes  gets  a  firmer 
grip  on  the  air,  since  when  the  propeller 
is  at  the  stern  the  planes  make  many  dis- 
turbing currents,  just  as  a  steamship 
53 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

churns  the  water  in  its  wake.  Others  ar- 
gue that  by  placing  this  propelling  force 
at  the  rear  of  the  planes  the  craft  is 
made  more  steady.  At  any  rate,  excellent 
flights  may  be  made  with  either  arrange- 
ment. 

In  connecting  up  your  propeller  with 
the  motor  it  is  very  important  that  the 
shaft  should  turn  freely  and  that  the  bear- 
ings offer  the  least  possible  resistance. 
If  you  have  built  your  aeroplane  from  the 
drawing  (see  Plate  A),  now  drill  a  hole 
exactly  in  the  center  of  the  stick  which 
crosses  the  triangle  at  the  rear  of  the 
frame.  This  hole  will  come  on  a  line 
with  the  apex  of  the  prism,  or  exactly  in 
the  center  of  the  triangle.  When  the  turn- 
ing of  the  motor  pulls  the  ends  of  the 
frame  together,  the  strain  will  therefore  be 
exactly  distributed  among  the  three  sides 
or  braces. 

The  propeller  must  be  kept  clear  of  the 

frame  and   must  never   touch   or   scrape 

against   it.   First   a  thin   strip   of  metal, 

drilled  to  take  the  axle  or  hat-pin,  should 

54 


BUILDING  THE  MOTOR 

be  nailed  over  the  hole  in  the  crosspiece. 
A  sheet  of  aluminium  such  as  is  used  for 
name-plates  is  just  the  thing.  Now  on  the 
propeller-wire  or  axis  string  a  smooth, 
symmetrical  glass  bead,  and  pass  the  axle 
through  the  metal  strip  and  the  crosspiece. 
This  will  give  you  an  excellent  substitute 
for  ball-bearings.  The  end  of  the  wire 
should  then  be  turned  into  a  hook  well 
inside  the  frame.  The  propeller  should  be 
mounted  so  carefully  that  it  will  turn 
freely  without  friction  and  without  wab- 
bling from  side  to  side. 

The  simplest  and  most  effective  motor 
is  formed  by  connecting  the  two  hooks 
with  many  turns  of  a  long,  thin  strand  of 
rubber,  which  can  be  bought  by  the  yard 
or  pound.  The  thinner  strands  of  rubber 
will  exert  more  force  than  the  heavy 
bands,  and  red  rubber  is  more  durable 
than  any  other.  The  bands  should  be 
looped  loosely  between  the  two  hooks, 
just  as  you  would  wind  a  skein  of 
zephyr  —  over  the  hook  on  the  propeller- 
"  shaft,"  then  around  the  hook  at  the  other 
55 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

end,  then  down  over  the  propeller-shaft 
hook,  and  so  on.  If  the  hooks  be  three  feet 
apart  the  combined  strands  should  form  a 
band  one  inch  or  more  in  diameter.  If  you 
cannot  buy  the  rubber  in  this  form,  a 
number  of  two-inch  rubber  bands,  such  as 
you  buy  by  the  box  at  the  stationer's,  may 
be  lopped  chain  fashion  together  to  form 
a  continuous  rope  from  hook  to  hook. 

To  store  up  energy  for  the  flight,  simply 
turn  your  propeller  round  and  round  until 
the  rope  of  rubber  bands  is  tightly 
knotted.  You  can  readily  tell  when  it  is 
sufficiently  wound  and  the  danger-point  is 
reached,  which  comes  when  the  pull  of  the 
rubber  grows  too  strong  for  your  frame. 
The  average  motor  should  be  turned  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  times.  When  the 
propeller  is  released  the  rubber  bands  in 
unwinding  will  give  you  back  almost  ex- 
actly the  same  number  of  revolutions,  less 
perhaps  one  or  two,  which  represents  the 
loss  through  friction. 

If  the  propeller  simply  buzzes  around, 
coming  to  rest  in  a  few  seconds,  without 
56 


Model  Constructed  from  Diagram,  Plate  A. 


BUILDING  THE  MOTOR 

raising  your  aeroplane,  it  is  probably  too 
small  for  the  weight  of  the  aeroplane. 
When  fully  wound  up  the  propeller  should 
run  for  about  ten  seconds.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  propeller  be  too  large,  it  will 
quickly  twist  the  aeroplane  out  of  its 
course  and  drive  it  to  earth.  It  is  well  to 
try  out  your  motor  thoroughly  to  make 
sure  of  its  running  smoothly  before  at- 
tempting any  actual  flights. 

Do  not  yield  to  the  temptation  of  trying 
your  wings,  however,  until  the  skids  have 
been  attached.  Most  of  the  regular  full- 
size  aeroplanes  run  on  ordinary  bicycle 
wheels,  although  the  Wrights  use  runners 
like  a  sleigh.  These  skids  or  runners  en- 
able the  machine  to  run  along  the  ground 
with  the  least  possible  friction  and  greatly 
assist  in  rising.  In  the  models  of  aero- 
planes the  skids  serve  a  double  purpose  in 
protecting  the  machine  when  it  alights. 

A  serviceable  f  skid  may  be  made  by 
building  a  triangle  of  thin  strips  and  at- 
taching it  to  the  frame  with  the  broad  side 
downward,  as  shown  in  the  accompany- 
59 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

ing  drawing.  Skids  made  of  reed  curving 
down  from  the  main  body  of  the  aeroplane 
will  also  serve  to  take  up  the  shock.  There 
are  many  ways  of  constructing  these  skids, 
and  a  study  of  the  models  here  illus- 
trated will  give  many  suggestions.  If  you 
intend  to  have  your  aeroplane  start  from 
the  ground,  the  front  skids  should  be 
somewhat  longer  than  those  in  the  rear  to 
give  it  the  proper  lift. 

The  friction  of  the  skids  is  greatly  re- 
duced by  mounting  them  on  wheels.  Small 
metal  wheels  may  be  borrowed  from  toy 
automobiles,  or  small  disks  of  wood  or 
cork  will  answer  for  the  purpose.  A  very 
simple  axis  may  be  formed  by  running  a 
long  hat-pin  through  the  uprights  of  the 
skids.  The  photographs  of  the  best 
models  will  be  found  full  of  suggestions. 
You  will  need  at  least  three  skids  to  form 
a  tripod  for  your  aeroplane.  It  makes 
little  difference  if  you  use  one  leg  in  front, 
or  two. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  frame 
should  be  properly  braced  to  withstand 
60 


BUILDING  THE   MOTOR 

the  strain  brought  upon  it.  In  the  glider 
this  bracing  is  less  important,  but  the  ac- 
tion of  the  motor  changes  the  situation. 
The  rapid  movement  of  the  propellers 
wracks  the  entire  frame,  and  the  impact 
on  landing  is  naturally  greater  when  the 
weight  is  increased.  A  thin  copper  wire, 
No.  32,  34,  or  36,  should  be  used,  which 
will  be  found  strong  and  flexible,  while 
adding  little  to  the  weight.  After  con- 
structing your  aeroplane  go  over  it  care- 
fully and  cut  away  the  wood  wherever  it 
may  be  lightened,  and  then  strengthen  it 
by  bracing.  Wherever  a  joint  may  be 
strengthened  or  a  strut  or  a  plane  be  made 
more  rigid  by  bracing,  do  not  spare  the 
wire. 

The  accompanying  drawing,  with  the 
photographs  of  models,  will  indicate  how 
these  braces  may  best  be  applied.  To  begin 
with,  braces  should  be  run,  wherever  pos- 
sible, from  the  corners  of  the  planes  to  the 
central  frame  and  the  skids.  In  the  mono- 
plane forms  you  will  find  it  worth  while  to 
add  posts  or  perpendiculars  to  the  upper 
61 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

side  of  the  frame  and  run  wire  braces  diag- 
onally to  the  ends  of  the  planes.  The  ex- 
treme ends  of  the  planes  should  also  be 
connected. 

No  matter  how  carefully  you  have  con- 
structed your  aeroplane,  you  will  find  the 
planes  have  a  tendency  to  sag  and  become 
wrinkled.  These  braces  give  you  the  op- 
portunity to  pull  them  taut  and  hold  them 
in  this  position.  This  is  commonly  called 
"  tuning  up  "  the  aeroplane.  It  will  be 
found  convenient  to  fasten  small  rings  to 
the  ends  of  the  braces  whenever  they  may 
be  slipped  over  the  ends  of  the  frame  to 
save  the  trouble  of  winding.  The  more 
perfectly  your  aeroplane  is  tuned  up,  the 
greater  will  be  its  speed  and  distance  quali- 
ties. 

An  excellent  monoplane  for  the  begin- 
ner is  shown  in  drawing.  (Plate  C.)  It 
is  very  simple  and  easily  adjusted,  and 
when  well  tuned  up  will  fly  upward  of 
two  hundred  feet.  The  two  planes  are 
built  separately  in  the  proportion  indi- 
cated. The  frame  consists  of  a  central 
62 


Splitting  the  Cigar  Box  Cover  to  Build  the  Propeller. 


BUILDING  THE  MOTOR 

stick  supported  by  triangular  skids.  An 
ordinary  hat-pin  run  through  the  supports 
near  the  ground  serves  as  an  axle  for 
wooden  disks  or  wheels.  The  front  skids 
are  made  somewhat  higher  to  give  the 
front  planes  the  proper  angle  of  elevation. 


THE  DIAGRAM  OF  A  MONOPLANE. 
Planes  measure  20  inches  by  8  inches.     The  motor  base  is  36  inches  in  length. 

PLATE  C. 

The  bracing  of  the  planes  is  simple  but 
effective,  and  should  be  copied  carefully, 
particularly  the  double  bracing  in  the  rear, 
using  ordinary  wire  for  the  purpose.  A 
double  support  is  used  for  the  axle  of  the 
propeller,  an  excellent  idea,  which  keeps 
the  shaft  rigidly  in  place.  It  is  formed  by 
fastening  two  blocks  drilled  to  hold  the 
axle  to  the  bottom  of  the  main  frame.  The 
planes  are  held  taut  by  wires  running  from 
65 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

the  corners  to  a  post  at  the  middle  of  the 
plane.  The  front  plane  is  hinged  at  its  rear 
edge,  and  may  be  tilted  by  pulling  back  a 
piece  of  whalebone  fastened  at  its  center, 
which  is  tacked  to  the  top  of  the  frame. 
The  rudder  turns  on  a  triangular  frame  at- 
tached to  the  top  of  the  rear  plane.  A 
string  passes  through  the  rear  end  of  the 
rudder  to  the  rear  edge  of  the  plane,  form- 
ing a  triangle,  which  makes  it  possible  to 
adjust  the  rudder-plane  and  fix  it  rigidly 
in  position. 

After  you  have  built  one  or  two  models 
you  will  find  yourself  confronted  by  a  be- 
wildering number  of  schemes  for  con- 
structing new  forms.  It  will  be  found  a 
very  simple  matter  to  use  stiff  wire  for 
many  parts  of  your  model  instead  of  wood 
or  reed.  In  building  rounded  planes  the 
wire  will  be  a  convenience.  The  wire  may 
be  attached  to  the  wooden  frame  by  em- 
bedding it  in  the  wood  and  binding  it  fast. 
And,  by  the  way,  you  can  get  a  surprising 
effect  by  painting  your  wooden  frame  with 
silver  paint,  as  the  Wrights  do.  To  all 
66 


BUILDING  THE  MOTOR 

appearance  you  will  have  an  aluminium 
frame. 

An  aeroplane  to  be  considered  shipshape 
must  be  even  more  perfect  in  every  detail 
than  the  finest  racing  yacht.  Go  over 
your  model,  scrutinize  every  detail;  if  after 
taking  every  precaution,  your  planes  do 
not  fit  like  the  sails  of  a  racing  yacht,  cover 
them  with  a  thin  solution  of  paraffin.  On 
hardening,  this  will  hold  the  material  per- 
fectly smooth,  so  that  the  planes  will  offer 
a  perfect  lifting  surface. 

The  amateur  aeronaut  must  be  prepared 
for  disappointments.  An  aeroplane  is  one 
of  the  crankiest  crafts  in  the  world  to  man- 
age. It  may  twist  and  turn,  plunge  in  and 
out,  up  and  down,  apparently  without  the 
least  excuse.  There  is  always,  however, 
a  good  reason  somewhere  for  its  behavior. 
As  you  learn  its  ways,  which,  after  all,  are 
very  simple,  the  flights  will  be  longer, 
swiftier,  and  steadier.  There  is  no  toy  in 
the  world  which  so  quickly  repays  one  for 
patience  and  perseverance. 


67 


CHAPTER   V 

PINE    POINTS    OF    CONSTRUCTION 

A  GREAT  many  experiments  have 
been  made  to  find  whether  the  flat  or 
curved  wings  give  the  best  support,  and 
how  sharply  the  curve  should  be  drawn. 
The  wings  of  birds  are  curved  slightly  up- 
ward, and  in  the  end,  after  all  the  experi- 
ments, it  has  been  found  that  this  curve 
is  just  the  right  one.  All  forms  of  aero- 
planes will  fly  more  swiftly  and  steadily 
if  the  planes  be  slightly  bowed  or  flexed. 
After  you  have  built  your  aeroplane  with 
flat  wings  it  will  repay  you  to  replace  them 
with  flexed  planes,  and  you  will  find  that 
the  experience  in  building  models  will 
make  this  construction  very  simple. 

The  lighter  and  more  flexible  materials, 

such  as  bamboo  or  cane,  are  best  for  the 

curved  planes.     After  you  have  decided 

upon  the  dimensions  of  the  wings  cut  the 

68 


FINE   POINTS   OF   CONSTRUCTION 

pieces  for  the  ends  slightly  longer  than  the 
width  of  your  planes.  These  pieces  may 
then  be  bent  by  steaming  them  over  a 
kettle  of  boiling  water  and  bending  to  the 
desired  curve.  When  dry  they  will  hold 
their  shape  remarkably  well.  Another 
plan  is  to  use  a  flexible  strip  and  pull  the 
ends  together  by  a  strong  thread  or  wire 
until  the  wood  is  bowed  to  just  the  right 
curve.  A  corset  steel  or  whalebone  may 
readily  be  curved  in  the  same  way.  It  is 
a  common  mistake  to  curve  the  plane  too 
sharply,  when  the  resistance  offered  to  the 
air  will  be  greater  than  that  with  the  flat 
plane. 

A  plane  two  or  three  feet  in  width  can- 
not be  held  in  shape  merely  by  curving  the 
end  pieces.  A  series  of  ribs  must  be  added 
at  equal  distances,  each  having,  of  course, 
exactly  the  same  upward  curve.  The  ribs 
may  be  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  planes 
with  small  brads  or  simply  with  glue  or 
wire.  The  covering  should  then  be  drawn 
down.  A  very  smooth  covering  may  be 
made  of  rice-paper.  Cut  the  sheets  the 
69 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

proper  size  and  lay  them  for  a  few  minutes 
between  moistened  cloths.  Now  stretch 
the  paper  carefully  over  the  frame  and 
glue  in  position.  When  dry  the  paper  will 
contract  and  leave  a  smooth,  taut  surface 
like  the  head  of  a  drum. 

Much  depends  upon  the  curve  of  the 
plane.  A  wing  whose  curve  is  not  a  per- 
fect arc  of  a  circle,  but  which  is  rounded 
just  back  of  the  front  edge  and  flattened 
at  the  rear,  will  be  found  to  offer  the  least 
resistance  to  the  air.  The  best  plan  is  to 
study  the  curves  in  the  aeroplanes  or  mod- 
els and  imitate  them.  Different  models 
require  different  planes.  It  is  a  problem 
which  each  young  aeronaut  must  work  out 
for  himself. 

The  question  of  rudders  or  guiding 
planes  is  very  important.  It  is  too  much 
to  expect  of  even  the  best  model  that  it 
will  fly  in  an  unswerving  line.  Any  simple 
vertical  plane  which  may  be  turned  from 
side  to  side  and  held  in  position  will  act  as 
a  rudder.  There  is  great  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  proper  size  and  position 
70 


• 


FINE   POINTS   OF   CONSTRUCTION 

of  these  guiding  surfaces.  It  is  argued  by 
some  aviators  that  the  rudder  should  be 
placed  above  the  plane,  where  the  air  is 
undisturbed,  while  others  believe  that  the 
partial  vacuum  created  above  the  wings  in 
flight  makes  the  propeller  ineffective.  Still 
others  argue  that  a  rudder  placed  back  of 
the  planes  affords  a  leverage,  and  is  there- 
fore more  effective.  Try  a  rudder  in  each 
position.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  a 
law  for  all  models. 

The  larger  models  should  be  equipped 
with  twin  propellers.  In  building  these 
the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
them  exactly  the  same  size,  weight,  and 
pitch.  Twin  propellers  should,  as  a  rule, 
be  placed  at  the  front  of  the  machine,  that 
is,  they  should  pull  and  not  push  the 
planes.  If  by  any  accident  the  motor  of 
one  should  fail,  the  second  propeller  will 
continue  to  keep  the  aeroplane  afloat  and 
break  its  fall  on  descending.  With  the 
propellers  at  the  stern  of  the  little  airship, 
the  failure  of  one  would  cause  the  plane  to 
pitch  downward,  and  the  remaining  pro- 
73 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

peller  would  drive  it  down  to  possible  dis- 
aster. 

In  winding  up  the  two  motors,  care 
should  be  taken  to  give  both  the  same 
number  of  turns.  The  aeroplane  may  be 
launched  by  holding  a  propeller  in  either 
hand  and  releasing  simultaneously.  The 
double  motor  insures  a  steadier  as  well  as 
a  longer  flight.  Always  turn  the  propel- 
lers in  opposite  directions.  In  flying  they 
must  spin  around  either  toward  each  other 
or  away  from  each  other.  If  they  turn  the 
same  way  they  will  give  the  model  a 
torque  which  no  rudder  could  possibly 
overcome. 

The  efficiency  of  your  motor  depends 
more  upon  its  length  than  its  diameter. 
In  constructing  the  motor-base,  especially 
for  the  larger  models,  arrange  to  have  the 
strands  of  rubber  bands  extend  the  entire 
length  of  your  aeroplane,  and  if  necessary, 
project  well  forward  of  the  front  plane. 
Such  a  motor  in  unwinding  will  exert 
a  more  sustained  force.  The  shorter 
strands  of  greater  diameter  will  unwind 
74 


FINE   POINTS   OF   CONSTRUCTION 

much  more  quickly  and  give  very  short 
flights. 

With  a  little  experience  you  will  soon 
learn  to  gauge  your  motor  to  the  needs  of 
your  air-ship.  It  is,  of  course,  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  force  exerted  by  the 
motor  should  be  sufficient  to  keep  your 
aeroplane  in  rapid  motion,  but  it  is  easy 
to  make  it  too  powerful.  If  it  were  pos- 
sible to  attach  a  "  governor "  to  your 
motor,  this  would  not  matter  so  much. 
But  since  this  is  practically  out  of  the 
question,  the  motor  itself  must  be  very 
nicely  proportioned  to  the  demand  made 
upon  it.  You  will  soon  be  able  to  judge 
between  the  steady  whir  of  a  good  motor, 
and  the  buzz  of  a  propeller  which  races. 
There  is  a  distinct  note  for  each. 

The  motor  is,  at  present,  the  great  prob- 
lem of  the  model  aeroplane.  The  rubber 
bands  are,  at  best,  only  a  make-shift.  It 
is  practically  out  of  the  question  to  get  a 
flight  of  more  than  fifteen  seconds  in  this 
way,  so  that  the  distance  is  limited  to  a 
little  more  than  two  hundred  feet.  It  is 
75 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

doubtless  only  a  question  of  time  before 
a  much  more  efficient  form  of  motor  will 
be  invented.  Very  probably,  some  ama- 
teur aviator  will  be  the  first  to  apply  a 
new  means  of  propulsion,  which  would  be 
an  important  achievement  indeed. 

The  simplest  form  of  motor  after  the 
rubber  bands  would  seem  to  be  some  form 
of  metal  spring  which  could  be  wound  up. 
Long  before  the  days  of  automobiles,  as 
we  now  know  them,  wagons  were  built 
with  motors  of  springs,  and  some  sur- 
prising runs  were  obtained.  The  spring 
lends  itself  to  many  forms  of  construction, 
and  is  not  expensive.  It  will  be  necessary 
to  control  its  action  in  some  way,  however, 
to  prevent  it  from  racing  and  running 
down  in  almost  no  time,  like  the  too  heavy 
rubber  motors.  It  might  be  found  inter- 
esting to  experiment  with  the  spring  to  be 
found  in  the  ordinary  roller-shade.  The 
weight  of  these  springs  is  not  too  great  to 
be  carried  by  a  good  aeroplane  model, 
which,  of  course,  is  a  great  factor  in  their 
favor. 

76 


FINE    POINTS   OF    CONSTRUCTION 

A  number  of  experiments  have  been 
made  in  France  to  equip  aeroplane  models 
with  compressed-air  motors.  The  com- 
pressed air  is  carried  in  a  hollow  tube  in 
much  the  same  position  as  the  rubber 
bands.  Many  believe  that  the  motor 
problem,  for  the  toy  aeroplane  will  be 
solved  in  this  way.  A  number  of  interest- 
ing models  have  also  been  equipped  with 
clock-work  motors.  A  small  movement, 
such  as  may  be  borrowed  from  some  me- 
chanical toys,  will  run  for  a  minute  or 
more.  What  glorious  flights  would  be 
possible  if  our  models  could  be  kept 
aloft  —  say  five  times  as  long  as  at  pres- 
ent. When  you  feel  that  you  thoroughly 
understand  your  model,  borrow  the  clock 
work  from  some  old  toy  and  make  the 
experiment.  It  is  possible  to  buy  motors 
for  model  aeroplanes.  The  smallest  of 
these  develops  one  half  horsepower, 
weighs  seven  pounds  and  will  run  for 
fifteen  minutes. 

The  best  covering  for  the  wings  still  re- 
mains largely  an  open  question.  Al- 
79 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

though  your  model  will  make  successful 
flights  with  almost  any  kind  of  covering, 
you  will  find  that  its  stability  will  be  in- 
creased and  the  flight  lengthened  by  a 
little  attention  to  this  detail.  According 
to  the  Wright  Brothers,  the  most  success- 
ful covering  is  the  one  which  offers  the 
greatest  resistance  to  the  air.  The  pres- 
sure of  the  air  upward  under  the  planes 
tends  to  force  its  way  through  the  meshes 
of  even  the  finest  cloth.  The  addition  of 
a  coat  of  varnish  will  prevent  this  leakage. 
A  light  parchment  will  also  be  found  ef- 
fective. It  will  be  well  to  experiment  with 
a  variety  of  coverings. 

A  very  light,  serviceable  frame  may  be 
made  for  your  motor-base  by  using  hollow 
shafts  or  sticks.  Procure  a  very  thin,  light 
wood,  such  as  is  used  for  veneering,  and 
after  cutting  it  carefully  into  strips,  glue 
them  together  to  form  a  hollow  shaft 
about  an  inch  square.  Although  the  shell 
may  be  only  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick, 
the  frame  will  be  found  strong  enough  for 
all  practical  purposes.  A  hollow  frame  of 
80 


FINE   POINTS   OF   CONSTRUCTION 

this  kind  will  save  several  ounces  of 
weight. 

The  builder  of  aeroplane  models  will 
find  a  good  friend  in  aluminium.  It  is 
strong  enough  for  all  purposes  of  the 
model  air-ship  and,  even  when  used  freely, 
adds  almost  nothing  to  the  weight.  The 
metal  costs  ninety  cents  a  pound,  but  it 
is  so  light  that,  at  this  rate,  it  will  be  found 
a  very  cheap  material.  Comparatively 
thick  pieces  may  be  used  for  braces  or  for 
angles,  thus  making  the  frame  absolutely 
rigid,  while  adding  but  a  fraction  of  an 
ounce  to  the  weight.  The  metal,  being 
comparatively  soft,  is  easily  worked,  and 
simple  castings  may  be  made  at  little  ex- 
pense. 

Many  builders  of  aeroplanes  waste  time 
and  ingenuity  quite  unnecessarily  in  con- 
structing sets  of  wheels  for  carrying  their 
models.  The  time  would  be  better  em- 
ployed in  looking  to  your  planes.  The 
amount  of  friction  saved  by  attaching 
wheels,  even  good  ones,  to  your  model,  is 
after  all  very  trifling.  Should  the  wheels 
81 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

jam  or  stick,  which  is  likely  to  be  the  case 
with  such  small  models,  they  are  worse 
than  skids,  and  besides,  add  appreciably  to 
the  weight.  A  light  skid  is  better  than  a 
clumsy  wheel.  If  your  model  fails  to  rise 
from  the  ground,  the  fault  is  not  at  all 
likely  to  be  in  the  skids,  but  in  the  thrust 
or  lifting-surface. 

An  excellent  plan  for  guiding  the  flights 
is  to  add  square  frames  of  soft  lead  wire 
to  the  front  or  cutting-edge  of  your  front 
planes.  Bend  a  piece  of  wire  to  form  three 
sides  of  a  square,  each  two  or  three  inches 
long,  and  fasten  the  loose  ends  to  the 
plane.  By  bending  these  up  or  down,  the 
center  of  gravity  may  be  altered  at  a 
touch.  If  your  model  goes  askew,  you 
may  bend  one  of  these  up  and  the 
other  down,  until  you  get  the  desired  bal- 
ance. 

In  actual  practice,  the  soaring-  or  float- 
ing-planes seem  to  add  greater  stability  to 
the  model  and  effect  to  a  marked  degree 
the  length  of  the  flight.  It  is  difficult  to 
tell  exactly  why.  The  planes  in  passing 
82 


FINE   POINTS   OF   CONSTRUCTION 

may  create  an  eddy  in  the  air,  a  following 
wave,  as  it  were,  which  tends  to  retard  the 
flight,  while  the  floating-plane  smoothes 
this  out.  In  any  event,  here  is  an  experi- 
ment well  worth  trying. 


CHAPTER   VI 

SIMPLE  MONOPLANE   MODELS 

OF  the  variety  of  aeroplanes,  there 
seems  to  be  no  end.  Nature  offers 
a  bewildering  variety  of  models  in  the  in- 
numerable birds  and  insects,  which  may  be 
accepted  as  successful  monoplanes.  These, 
in  turn,  may  be  copied  and  modified  indef- 
initely. The  science  of  aviation  is  still  so 
young  that  there  is  ample  opportunity  for 
invention  and  discovery  for  all,  and  every 
new  trial  adds  something  to  our  informa- 
tion, and  carries  the  science  a  step  nearer 
perfection. 

It  will  be  found  an  excellent  plan  to 
build,  once  and  for  all,  a  strong  well  pro- 
portioned motor  base,  and  mount  a  pow- 
erful motor  and  well  modeled  propeller. 
A  variety  of  planes  may  then  be  tested  out 
by  attaching  them  to  this.  The  motor 
84 


SIMPLE  MONOPLANE  MODELS 

base  will  answer  for  practically  all  mono- 
plane forms  and  many  biplane  models  as 
well.  Such  a  frame  should  be  about  three 
feet  in  length  and  carry  one  or  better  two 
motors,  placed  side  by  side. 

There  is  as  much  danger  in  providing 
too  much  lifting-surface  in  your  aeroplane 
as  too  little.  This  fault  is  well  illustrated 
in  an  exceedingly  clever  French  model 
(Plate  i ).  Although  the  model  is  well  con- 
structed, and  appears  ship-shape  at  first 
glance,  it  nevertheless  has  far  too  much 
surface  and  will  not  fly  well.  If  the  depth 
of  the  wings  were  reduced  fully  one  half, 
it  would  have  a  much  better  chance. 

The  best  lifting-planes  are  those  which 
present  a  broad  front  or  entering  edge, 
but  with  comparatively  little  depth.  The 
successful  flying-machines,  whether  mon- 
oplanes or  biplanes,  use  these  very  wide 
but  shallow  planes  forward.  The  theory 
is  of  course  that  the  air  is  caught  for  an 
instant  beneath  the  plane  and  before  it  has 
a  chance  to  slip  off  the  sides,  the  wing  has 
caught  its  very  slight  supporting  power 
85 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

and  moved  on  to  new  and  undisturbed 
air. 

With  this  rule  in  mind  examine  the 
model's  front  plane  once  more.  It  will  be 
seen  that,  as  the  air  is  caught  under  this 
broad  surface,  it  will  try  to  escape  in  all 
directions  and  set  up  currents  of  air.  In- 
stantly the  broad  plane  loses  its  balance 
and  tilts  to  one  side  or  the  other.  No 
weighting  of  the  plane  can  overcome  this. 
If  the  plane  were  forced  through  the  air 
at  a  very  high  speed  a  steady  flight  might 
be  possible,  but  it  is  useless  to  try  to  over- 
come this  tendency  to  tip  and  wabble. 

The  planes  again  are  badly  designed.  A 
perfectly  straight  front  or  entering  edge 
gives  the  best  results.  A  certain  stability 
is  gained  by  curving  the  front  plane 
slightly,  this  will  be  discussed  later,  but 
there  is  no  excuse  for  the  semicircle  de- 
scribed in  this  case.  Every  inch  of  sur- 
face cut  away  from  the  front  edge  of  the 
plane  directly  reduces  its  lifting  power. 
The  arrow  like  form  of  the  rear  plane  does 
not  matter  because  this  is  a  stability  plane, 
86 


PLATE   I. 

A  Clever  Folding  Model.     The  Wings  Are  Broader  than  Need  Be. 


SIMPLE  MONOPLANE  MODELS 

not  a  lifting  plane.  In  this  case  the  rear 
plane  is  twice  the  size  it  should  be. 

The  propeller  of  this  model  is  much  too 
small,  even  if  the  size  of  the  planes  was 
correct.  It  is  well  placed  however  at  the 
front  of  the  model  where  it  may  turn  in 
undisturbed  air.  The  passage  of  these 
large  planes,  or  any  planes  for  that  matter, 
is  likely  to  cut  up  the  air  just  as  a  ship 
churns  the  water  into  a  wake  behind  it  and 
the  propeller  does  not  work  effectively  in 
these  eddies.  The  motor  seems  powerful 
and  well  braced,  although  it  might  be 
made  even  longer  by  carrying  it  to  the 
extreme  rear. 

Several  very  useful  ideas  may  be  bor- 
rowed from  the  construction  of  the  frame 
of  this  model.  It  is  made  entirely  of  metal, 
so  jointed  that  it  may  be  folded  up  into 
very  compact  form  like  an  umbrella.  The 
amateur  model  builder  should  not  attempt 
anything  so  complicated,  but  an  old  um- 
brella frame  may  be  used  with  good  results 
in  building  a  rigid  frame.  Use  the  steel 
rod  of  the  umbrella  as  a  backbone,  and  cut 
89 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

away  the  ribs  you  do  not  need.  The 
others  may  be  bent  into  various  shapes  to 
form  the  front  or  sides  of  the  planes,  the 
skids  or  braces.  Such  a  construction  is 
light  and  perfectly  rigid. 

A  very  effective  monoplane  may  be 
made  by  curving  the  front  and  rear  edges 
of  the  forward  plane,  while  keeping  the 
rear  or  stability  plane  rectangular  in  shape 
(Plate  2).  The  curve  of  this  model  may 
be  imitated  to  advantage,  as  well  as  the 
general  proportions.  Such  a  plane  is  less 
likely  to  be  deflected  by  air  currents  than 
a  straight  entering-edge  and  insures 
longer  and  steadier  flights.  Should  you 
be  troubled  by  your  model  twisting  from 
side  to  side  in  flight  try  curving  the  front 
edge  of  the  forward  plane. 

This  model  is  one  of  the  easiest  to  make 
and  is  an  excellent  one  for  beginners. 
Build  the  two  planes  separately  making 
the  larger  one  about  thirty  inches  in  width 
and  ten  inches  in  depth,  and  the  second 
one  fifteen  inches  in  width  and  ten  inches 
in  depth.  The  curved  sticks  may  be 
90 


SIMPLE  MONOPLANE  MODELS 

worked  up  by  using  bamboo  or  dowel 
sticks,  soaking  them  in  water  and  fasten- 
ing them  in  a  bowed  position  while  damp 
and  leaving  them  to  dry.  It  may  be  found 
a  good  plan  to  use  a  heavier  stick  for  the 
rear  edge  of  the  plane  to  gain  stability. 

A  single  stick  about  one  half  an  inch  in 
diameter  may  be  used  for  the  backbone. 
It  will  be  found  an  excellent  plan  to  attach 
the  planes  lightly  to  the  main  frame  so 
that  they  may  be  adjusted  before  fixing 
them  finally  in  position.  Place  them  in 
the  position  shown  in  the  accompanying 
photograph,  and  move  them  up  and  down 
until  the  flights  are  all  that  you  expect, 
when  they  may  be  fastened  for  good  and 
all.  The  bracing  of  this  model  is  excellent 
and  may  be  safely  imitated.  It  enables 
one  to  tune  up  either  plane  and  fix  them 
rigidly  in  position.  The  propeller  is  very 
properly  placed  forward  although  it  ap- 
pears to  be  rather  small.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  bother  with  any  vertical  rudder  for  this 
model  since  the  curve  of  the  front  plane 
insures  a  reasonably  straight  flight. 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

A  popular  French  model  which  may  be 
easily  imitated  consists  of  curved  planes 
both  front  and  rear  (Plate  3).  The 
curve  of  the  planes  is  too  complicated  to 
be  carried  out  in  wood,  but  may  be  readily 
formed  by  bending  a  stiff  wire  to  the  de- 
sired shape.  The  front  plane  should  be 
about  twelve  inches  in  width  and  four 
inches  in  depth.  The  rear  should  be  about 
half  this  size  and  of  the  same  form.  The 
planes  may  be  readily  mounted  "on  a  small 
dowel  stick.  A  small  propeller  and  a 
motor  a  foot  in  length  will  answer.  A 
small  semi-circular  fin  should  be  set  below 
the  rear  plane  to  act  as  rudder.-  First 
cover  the  frames  with  a  stiff  paper  and 
after  you  have  succeeded  in  adjusting  it, 
this  may  be  replaced  by  cloth.  The  model 
will  not  fly  far,  or  very  steadily,  but  it  is 
interesting  to  practice  with.  The  balance 
of  the  model  is  open  to  criticism;  for  the 
center  of  gravity  appears  to  be  too  far 
forward. 

The  simplest  of  all  models  to  build,  and 
not  the  least  interesting,  is  the  small  paper 
92 


A  Model  Aeroplane  Worth  Imitating. 


SIMPLE  MONOPLANE  MODELS 

monoplane  (Plate  4).  The  planes  which 
are  slightly  curved  are  formed  of  a  stiff 
card  which  will  hold  its  shape  when  bent 
into  position.  These  may  be  attached  to 
the  main  stick  by  inserting  an  edge  into 
a  groove  in  the  stick  and  glueing  in  place. 
It  is  not  well  to  construct  these  more  than 
six  inches  in  width  over  all. 

One  of  the  simplest  monoplanes  to  con- 
struct is  formed  of  a  broad  rectangular 
forward  plane  with  a  fan-shaped  stability- 
plane  at  the  rear  (Plate  5).  This  is  a 
French  model  which  is  said  to  have  flown 
long  distances ;  that  is  to  say,  300  feet  or 
more.  It  has  several  very  interesting  fea- 
tures. In  the  first  place  the  combined  area 
of  its  planes  is  doubtless  greater  than  that 
of  any  other  model  here  described.  The 
vertical  rudder  which  looks  very  ship- 
shape and  effective  is  very  easy  to  build 
and  the  frame  illustrates  several  new  prin- 
ciples. 

The  frame  or  motor-base  may  be  made 
of  heavy  dowel  sticks  or  light  lath  as  indi- 
cated in  the  photograph.  It  will  be  found 
95 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

simpler  to  avoid  tapering  the  frame  at  the 
rear  by  merely  constructing  a  stout  rect- 
angular base  with  a  length  two  and  one 
half  times  its  width.  The  forward  plane 
is  slightly  bowed  or  flexed.  It  will  be 
found  a  good  plan  to  construct  the  frame 
for  the  base  and  then  bow  a  light  strip  at 
either  end  against  the  edge.  By  fastening 
the  covering  to  these  curved  strips  a 
smooth  curved  surface  may  be  obtained. 

The  rear  stability-plane  may  be 
stretched  over  a  fan-shaped  frame  of  strips 
or  lath  which  is  in  turn  fastened  to  the 
motor-base.  Another  plan  is  to  attach  the 
front  and  rear  edges  of  the  plane,  the  rear 
one  being  slightly  longer,  and  stretch  the 
covering  over  these  leaving  the  sides  free 
as  in  the  photograph  of  the  accompanying 
model.  The  vertical  rudder  is  very  simple, 
consisting  of  a  piece  of  dowel  stick  sunk 
in  the  rear  frame  to  which  a  rectangular 
piece  of  cloth  is  attached  the  front  corner 
being  pulled  taut. 

The  spread  of  the  planes  appears  to  be 
considerably  greater  than  needs  be.  Since 
96 


SIMPLE  MONOPLANE  MODELS 

the  front  plane  is  flexed  it  may  be  reduced 
one  third  or  even  one  half  in  depth  with- 
out reducing  its  lifting  quality;  although 
in  this  case  it  should  be  placed  nearer  the 
stability  plane.  This  reduction  would,  of 
course,  make  an  important  saving  in  the 
weight  of  the  craft.  So  large  a  model  calls 
for  two  propellers  which  will  prove  more 
effective  at  the  front  rather  than  the  rear 
of  the  machine.  It  might  be  well  to  carry 
the  motors  further  back  than  has  been 
done  in  this  model  thus  gaining  additional 
power. 

Since  the  model  is  expected  to  rise  un- 
aided from  the  ground  the  question  of  the 
skids  is  very  important.  The  design  fol- 
lowed in  the  model  is  excellent.  The  front 
of  the  frame  is  supported  by  legs  consist- 
ing of  inverted  triangles  built  of  dowel 
sticks  attached  to  the  frame.  The  axle 
connecting  the  two  runs  on  small  wheels, 
such  as  may  be  borrowed  from  a  toy  auto- 
mobile. The  rear  of  the  frame  rests  on  a 
simple  skid  made  of  curved  reed.  These 
supports  place  the  model  at  an  angle 
97 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

which  should  enable  it  to  rise  easily  with- 
out loss  of  power.  There  is  a  great  deal 
of  satisfaction  in  working  on  so  large  a 
model,  the  parts  may  be  made  stronger 
and  there  is  less  likelihood  of  its  getting 
out  of  order. 

Now  turn  from  these  broad  planes  to 
the  rather  slight  model  (Plate  6),  and  the 
faults  of  its  proportion  are  at  once  obvi- 
ous. The  front  plane  is  much  too  far  back 
for  stability.  Such  a  model  will  glide 
fairly  well,  and,  if  the  motor  be  powerful 
it  will  rise  quickly,  but  a  steady  horizontal 
flight  is  out  of  the  question.  The  size  of 
the  planes  seems  perilously  small,  and  yet 
if  they  be  well  shaped  and  spaced  they  will 
prove  large  enough.  This  is  just  the  sort 
of  model  a  beginner  is  likely  to  make,  and 
therefore  serves  a  very  useful  purpose  in 
pointing  a  lesson. 

It  is  not  without  its  good  points.  The 
front  plane  has  been  carefully  flexed  and 
attached  to  the  motor  frame  at  a  good 
angle.  An  interesting  experiment  has  also 
been  made  in  carrying  the  edges  of  the 
98 


SIMPLE  MONOPLANE  MODELS 

front  plane  a  trifle  behind  the  rear  edge, 
thus  making  for  stability.  The  vertical 
rudder  above  the  rear  stability-plane  is 
well  placed,  although  it  appears  rather 
small.  The  skids  upon  which  the  model 
rests  and  the  proportion  of  the  front  to  the 
rear  elevation  are  excellent.  It  is  a  first 
rate  plan  in  building  such  a  model  to  at- 
tach the  front  plane  temporarily  to  the 
motor-base,  and  move  it  back  and  forth  in 
the  trial  flights  until  the  best  spacing  has 
been  found. 


101 


CHAPTER   VII 

ELABORATING   THE  MONOPLANE 

IT  is  surprising  to  find  how  far  the  pure 
monoplane  form  has  been  developed  by 
the  builders  of  model  aeroplanes.  It  is  no 
exaggeration  to  say  that  they  have  car- 
ried some  principles  of  construction  even 
further  than  the  builders  of  the  large  man- 
carrying  monoplanes.  Since  a  model  is  so 
easily  built,  and  costs  so  little,  it  is  of 
course  possible  to  experiment  with  all  sorts 
of  new  forms.  A  great  many  of  these  will 
doubtless  prove  to  be  all  wrong,  but  some 
are  certain  to  be  valuable  discoveries.  In 
future  years,  when  the  aeroplane  has  been 
perfected  and  perhaps  plays  an  important 
part  in  commerce,  sport  and  warfare  it  will 
probably  be  possible  to  trace  back  many  of 
its  improvements  to  the  model  aeroplanes 
102 


ELABORATING  MONOPLANE 

designed,  built  and  flown  by  American 
boys  of  to-day. 

A  beautiful  model  of  a  pure  monoplane 
form  carefully  elaborated  is  shown  in 
Plate  7.  In  this  case  increased  stability  is 
obtained  by  throwing  out  additional 
planes  both  to  the  front  and  rear.  It  may 
appear  at  first  glance  that  these  stability- 
planes  are  very  small  compared  with  the 
broad  soaring-plane,  but  they  have  not 
proved  so  in  flight.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  elevating-plane  of  the  Wright 
machine  is  very  small  compared  with  the 
spread  of  the  main  wings.  There  is  be- 
sides a  great  advantage  in  placing  the  sta- 
bility plane  well  forward  since  it  makes  it 
possible  to  build  an  unusually  long  motor- 
base  and  install  longer  and  more  powerful 
motors. 

The  main  plane  is  one  of  the  best  ex- 
amples of  construction  work  to  be  found 
among  all  these  models.  It  is  well  pro- 
portioned and  the  curve  has  been  skilfully 
drawn.  The  plane  is  made  unusually  rigid 
by  a  series  of  supports  or  braces  run  both 
103 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

horizontally  and  vertically.  Such  a  plane 
calls  for  considerable  time  and  patience, 
but  it  will  well  repay  the  builder  by  the 
long  and  steady  flights  it  insures  for  the 
model.  In  adding  ribs  to  a  large  plane  of 
this  kind  a  convenient  material  may  be 
prepared  by  splitting  up  thin  wooden 
plates  or  dishes,  such  as  you  buy  at  the 
grocers  for  a  penny.  The  strips  obtained 
in  this  way  may  be  easily  glued  or  tied  to 
the  edge  of  the  plane  and  shaped  as  de- 
sired. 

A  long,  straight  flight  is  insured  for  this 
model  by  equipping  it  with  three  vertical 
rudders  or  guiding-planes.  The  first  rud- 
der is  well  placed  above  the  front  plane. 
The  second  performs  a  good  service  be- 
neath the  main  plane,  while  the  third  is 
carried  unusually  far  back  behind  the  pro- 
pellers. The  problem  whether  a  rudder 
is  more  effective  above  or  below  the  planes 
is  very  ingeniously  solved  in  this  case  by 
placing  them  in  both  positions.  An  in- 
teresting principle  is  involved  in  placing 
the  rear  rudder.  By  fixing  it  far  behind 
104 


One  of  the  Simplest  of  Aeroplanes  to  Construct. 


ELABORATING  MONOPLANE 

the  center  of  gravity  of  the  model  a  con- 
siderable leverage  is  obtained,  and  a  small, 
light  rudder  becomes  more  effective  in  this 
position  than  a  much  larger  plane  placed 
forward.  These  rudders  are  built  so  that 
they  may  be  easily  turned  from  side  to  side 
and  fixed  rigidly  at  any  angle. 

Still  another  interesting  feature  of  this 
model  is  the  design  of  the  skids.  The 
model  is  supported  at  an  angle  which  en- 
ables it  to  rise  easily.  These  skids  are  be- 
sides arranged  with  shock-absorbers,  sim- 
ply constructed  with  elastic  bands,  which 
enable  them  to  take  up  the  shock  on  land- 
ing and  thus  protects  the  machine.  This 
is  an  interesting  field  of  experiment  and 
a  little  care  in  building  these  skids  will 
save  many  a  smash-up. 

It  cannot  be  too  often  stated,  that  the 
supporting  power  of  the  planes  depends 
far  more  upon  their  shape  than  their  size. 
A  remarkably  effective  model  may  be 
made  with  planes,  which  are  little  more 
than  blades  (Plate  8).  The  planes,  in  this 
case,  are  made  of  white  wood,  slightly 
107 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

curved.  The  front  or  entering  edge  is 
very  sharp,  while,  at  the  rear,  a  thin  strip 
of  shellaced  silk  is  glued,  thus  forming  a 
good  soaring  blade.  The  front  plane  is  a 
counterpart  of  the  first,  except  that  it  is 
smaller.  The  only  stability  plane  is  a  thin, 
knife-like  strip  placed  vertically  just  be- 
fore the  rear  plane.  The  model  is  mounted 
on  skids.  It  is  driven  by  a  small  propeller 
placed  far  back  of  the  center  of  gravity. 
It  is  probably  the  easiest  as  it  is  the  small- 
est of  all  models  to  construct,  and  will  fly 
for  more  than  three  hundred  feet. 

In  building  this  model  it  will  be  found  a 
good  plan  to  bend  the  strips  of  wood  for 
the  planes  by  steaming  them  over  a  kettle. 
Allow  the  steam  to  play  on  the  under  or 
concave  side  of  the  plane.  When  dry  the 
plane  will  retain  its  shape.  The  front  or 
entering  edge  should  be  trimmed  away  to 
a  sharp  line  and  sand-papered  perfectly 
smooth.  The  front  corners  of  the  planes 
should  be  slightly  rounded  while  the  rear 
edges  are  kept  straight.  The  forward 
plane  should  be  tilted  slightly  upward  to 
108 


ELABORATING  MONOPLANE 

enable  it  to  rise,  but  at  an  angle  of  less 
than  thirty  degrees.  The  secret  of  the  re- 
markable flights  of  this  model  probably 
lies  in  the  smoothness  of  its  planes  and  the 
absence  of  irregular  parts  which  offer  a 
resistance  to  the  air. 

An  interesting  field  of  experiment,  as 
yet  almost  untouched,  lies  in  the  triangu- 
lar, or  narrow-prowed  forms  of  aeroplanes 
(Plate  9).  The  theory  of  this  model  is,  that 
a  triangle  entering  the  air  end-wise,  will 
meet  with  less  resistance  than  when  pre- 
senting a  broad,  entering  edge.  The 
model  is,  frankly,  an  experiment,  although 
it  has  been  found  to  have  unexpected  sta- 
bility, and  flies  well.  Its  central  planes, 
joined  at  right  angles,  is  supported  by  two, 
lateral,  stability-planes,  radiating  back- 
ward from  the  front  of  the  model.  The 
aeroplane  is  drawn,  not  pushed,  through 
the  air,  by  double  propellers,  and  is  steered 
by  an  angular  guiding-plane  at  the  rear. 
The  planes  are  mounted  upon  a  triangular 
frame,  which  runs  on  wheels,  two  being 
set  forward  and  one  aft.  The  planes, 
109 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

taking  advantage  of  the  dihedral  angle, 
seem  to  rest  upon  the  air,  which  makes  for 
stability.  In  actual  practice,  however,  the 
planes  in  this  particular  model  have  been 
found  to  be  too  narrow.  The  question 
naturally  arises  as  to  the  effect  of  revers- 
ing this  model  and  turning  the  dihedral 
angle  of  the  central  plane,  into  a  tent  effect. 
As  a  matter  of  actual  experience,  the 
model  flies  almost  equally  well  upside 
down. 

In  many  of  the  early  attempts  to  build 
aeroplanes  the  wings  or  planes  were  tilted 
sharply  upward  from  the  center  thus 
forming  what  is  known  as  a  dihedral  angle. 
This  form  served  to  lower  the  center  of 
gravity  and,  it  was  thought,  made  for 
stability.  The  Wright  Brothers  found 
that  this  plan,  although  it  lowered  the 
center  of  gravity,  caused  it  to  move  from 
side  to  side  like  a  pendulum,  and  therefore 
abandoned  it  in  favor  of  the  flat  curved 
wing  which  have  been  so  generally  imi- 
tated. Now  this  model  returns  to  the  old 
principle  of  the  dihedral  model,  but  treats 
no 


Too  Large  for  Beginners,  but  Will  Make  Long  Flights. 


ELABORATING  MONOPLANE 

it  in  a  new  way.  By  building  the  model 
with  three  planes,  each  with  the  dihedral 
angle,  the  center  of  gravity  has  been  low- 
ered and,  at  the  same  time,  the  oscillation 
has  been  greatly  reduced. 

The  narrow-prowed  form  of  this  model 
is  also  very  interesting  and  its  principle 
may  well  be  copied.  All  of  the  successful 
monoplanes  aloft  to-day,  the  Bleriot, 
Santos  Dumont,  Antoinette  and  others 
are  driven  with  their  larger  or  soaring 
planes  forward  and  their  smaller  stability- 
planes  in  the  rear.  The  day  may  come 
when  these  machines  will  be  reversed. 
The  model  before  us  may  point  the  way 
to  a  great  improvement  in  the  building  of 
air-craft.  It  is  an  important  principle  for 
the  builder  of  model  aeroplanes  to  bear  in 
mind. 

In  the  present  state  of  model  aeroplane 
building,  the  longest  flights  are  made  with 
an  adaptation  of  the  monoplane  forms. 
An  excellent  model  is  shown  in  Plate  10. 
The  dihedral,  or  V  shape  of  the  planes 
gives  them  greater  supporting  power  than 
"3 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

others  in  the  horizontal  position.  The 
stability  plane  beneath  is  particularly 
recommended,  since  it  utilizes  the  frame 
already  in  position  and  does  not  add  to 
the  weight  of  the  model.  The  rear  of 
this  plane,  which  is  hinged,  is  easily  ad- 
justed. 

The  planes  of  this  model  are  especially 
interesting.  They  are  made  of  silk,  laid 
over  frames  of  dowel  sticks,  and  each  pair 
is  held  tightly  together  by  the  simple  de- 
vice of  connecting  them  with  elastic  bands, 
attached  to  clasps.  The  wires  running  to 
the  corners  of  the  planes,  are  fastened  to 
small  brass  rings  which  may  be  slipped 
over  the  sticks  or  posts  in  the  center  of  the 
frame,  which  makes  them  very  simple  to 
adjust.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  rear 
part  of  each  plane  swings  freely,  and  is 
kept  in  place  only  by  corset  steels,  used  as 
ribs,  which  are  sewn  into  the  cloth.  These 
floating  or  soaring  blades,  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  insure  longer  flights. 

With  such  a  model  there  is  little  danger 
of  building  a  too  powerful  motor.  By  in- 
114 


ELABORATING  MONOPLANE 

creasing  the  size  of  the  wings,  and  careful 
weighting,  a  surprising  amount  of  power 
may  be  applied  to  such  a  model  without 
rendering  it  unstable.  This  is  of  course  a 
great  advantage  in  such  a  model,  since  it 
lends  itself  to  longer  flights  and  the  in- 
stallation of  comparatively  heavy  motors. 
When  you  find  yourself  with  a  model  of 
this  design  in  good  working  order,  experi- 
ment by  binding  the  wings  or  planes  at  the 
middle  to  form  an  arched  surface  like  the 
wings  of  a  sea  gull.  The  flying  radius  of 
some  of  these  models  has  been  increased 
fully  fifty  per  cent  by  this  simple  expe- 
dient. 

An  interesting  modification  of  this  form 
(Plate  n)  is  provided  with  rigid  wings, 
and  is  driven  by  a  single  propeller.  The 
very  simple  but  effective  method  of  brac- 
ing the  wings,  may  be  studied  to  advan- 
tage. The  skids  are  well  designed.  In  still 
another  type  of  this  general  monoplane 
form  (Plate  12)  the  propeller  is  placed  in 
front  of  the  planes,  and  the  rubber  motor 
runs  below  the  main  bar.  The  wheels  sup- 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

porting  this  model  are  particularly  well 
made. 

A  very  serviceable,  little  monoplane 
form  may  be  made  by  making  the  rear 
upper  plane  adjustable  (Plates  13-14). 
The  front  plane  is  V-shaped  and  is  unusu- 
ally stable  for  so  light  a  model.  By  tilting 
the  rear  plane  up  or  down,  a  good  level 
flight  may  be  obtained.  The  frame,  in  this 
case,  is  made  of  wire.  The  propeller  is 
placed  well  behind  the  rear  plane,  thus 
bringing  the  center  of  gravity  well  for- 
ward to  balance  the  angle  of  the  rear  plane. 
The  blades  of  the  propeller  are  made  of 
twisted  wood,  which  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, since  it  is  likely  to  lose  its  shape. 

In  Plates  15-16  we  have  a  well  thought 
out  little  monoplane,  which  well  repays 
study.  The  propeller  is  set  forward  of  the 
lifting  plane  which  is  the  larger  of  the 
wings.  The  rear  plane  may  be  tilted  up 
or  down.  The  rudder,  which  is  also  ad- 
justable, is  set  below  it.  The  arrange- 
ment of  skids  is  excellent,  enabling  it  to 
rise  from  the  ground  with  little  loss  of 
116 


Model  shown  in  Plate  V.      Ready  for  a  Flight. 


ELABORATING  MONOPLANE 

friction.  The  method  of  flexing  the  front 
plane  may  well  be  imitated. 

A  good  working  idea  of  the  aeroplane 
is  clearly  shown  by  the  builder  of  the  bi- 
plane with  triangular  wings  (Plate  17). 
His  model  is  not  successful  and  will  not 
fly,  yet  it  embodies  several  good  features. 
The  biplane  form  of  the  lifting  plane  is 
excellent  in  itself  as  we  have  seen  in  earlier 
models.  The  spacing  of  the  two  planes  is 
good,  and  the  bracing  of  the  model 
throughout  is  well  planned.  The  triangle 
does  not  make  a  good  soaring  plane  even 
when  its  broad  side  is  made  the  entering 
edge.  The  triangle  serves  well  enough 
however  for  the  rear  stability  plane.  The 
chief  fault  of  the  model  is  that  it  is  much 
too  large.  The  motor  although  well  pro- 
portioned is  much  too  weak  to  propel  so 
large  a  frame. 

An  interesting  variation  from  the  com- 
mon type  of  aeroplane  is  made  by  varying 
the  angle  of  the  sides  of  the  planes 
(Fig.  18).  Here  is  a  well  constructed 
model,  and,  with  a  single  exception,  fairly 
119 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

well  proportioned.  The  mistake,  and  it  is 
likely  to  prove  a  serious  one,  is  in  the  size 
of  the  vertical  rudders.  They  are  well 
placed  above  the  main  plane,  but  their  size 
is  likely  to  defeat  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  designed  and  knock  the  model 
off  its  course  rather  than  keep  it  steady. 
It  is  a  question  again  if  one  of  these  rud- 
ders would  not  serve  the  purpose  better 
than  two  and  thus  minimize  weight  and 
resistance. 

The  best  point  of  this  model  is  the  in- 
genious method  of  enlarging  the  surface 
of  the  planes  without  increasing  the  size 
of  the  planes  or  adding  to  their  weight. 
This  is  done  by  cutting  the  covering  of  the 
planes  at  an  angle  and  keeping  the  entire 
surface  taut  by  bracing.  It  is  of  course 
very  important  that  the  cloth  should  be 
held  tight  without  wrinkling.  The  plan  of 
having  the  wings  taper  slightly  outward  is 
good.  Such  a  model  combines  more  lift- 
ing surface  with  less  weight  than  any 
other  model  of  this  general  group. 


120 


CHAPTER   VIII 

BUILDING   A   BIPLANE 

EVERY  one  knows,  of  course,  that  the 
box-kite  flies  better  than  a  plane  sur- 
face, and  many  believe  that  the  box  or 
cellular  type  of  aeroplane  has  a  similar  ad- 
vantage over  the  monoplane.  The  en- 
closed end  keeps  the  air  from  slipping  off 
the  edges  of  the  plane,  and  makes  for  sta- 
bility. There  is  all  the  difference  in  the 
world,  or  rather  in  the  air,  between  an 
actual  flight  and  the  movement  of  a  model 
aeroplane.  The  aviator,  by  flexing  his 
planes,  and  adjusting  his  rudders  fore  and 
aft,  may  balance  his  craft  to  suit  the  air 
currents.  In  the  model  aeroplane,  the  ad- 
justment must  be  made  before  starting 
once  and  for  all.  Several  interesting  prin- 
ciples are  involved  in  the  cellular  or  box 

121 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

form  of  aeroplanes  which  will  well  repa> 
study  (Plates  19-20). 

In  disturbed  air,  which  is  of  course  the 
usual  condition  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
cellular  model  is  likely  to  be  deflected,  and 
since  the  elevating  plane  or  planes  cannot 
be  adjusted,  it  will  soon  fall  off  its  course. 
Such  models  are  easy  to  construct,  and 
any  one  who  has  built  a  monoplane  will 
have  little  difficulty  with  them.  No  at- 
tempt is  made  to  flex  the  planes.  The 
cellular  type  must  be  equipped  with  a  lift- 
ing-plane forward,  which  may  be  easily 
adjusted  to  any  angle,  and  held  in  position. 
It  is  indispensable  that  you  have  two  pro- 
pellers placed  aft  behind  the  main  plane. 
The  model  may  be  made  much  more  effect- 
ive by  adding  a  third  stability-plane  or  rud- 
der at  the  rear.  It  may  be  either  vertical 
or  horizontal  and  should  be  easily  ad- 
justed. The  models  illustrated,  herewith, 
are  very  simple  forms  and  clearly  indicate 
the  necessary  frame  work.  It  will  be  found 
that  these  models  require  considerable  bal- 
last, skilfully  distributed. 
122 


BUILDING  A  BIPLANE 

In  building  these  cellular  forms  select 
some  light  lath  for  the  frame  rather  than 
dowel  sticks.  It  will  be  necessary  to  join 
many  of  these  together  at  right  angles, 
and  the  curved  stick  will  be  found  difficult 
to  work.  For  each  box  cut  four  sticks  the 
desired  width,  and  eight  sticks  the  depth 
of  your  plane.  The  box  should  be  almost 
exactly  square  so  that  all  these  shorter 
sticks  should  be  the  same  length.  Now 
build  your  box  by  nailing  and  glueing 
these  sticks  together,  taking  great  pains 
to  have  it  symmetrical.  Should  a  single 
one  of  these  sticks  be  too  long  or  too  short 
it  will  throw  the  entire  frame  out  of  plumb 
and  make  it  next  to  impossible  to  get  a 
straight  flight. 

In  most  of  these  models  the  front  or  rear 
stability-planes  are  made  exactly  like  the 
larger  frame  only  much  smaller.  When 
the  frames  are  completed  and  thoroughly 
dry  and  smooth,  stretch  the  cloth  covering 
tightly  over  them  by  drawing  it  length- 
wise, all  the  way  around.  By  using  a 
single  piece  of  cloth  it  will  be  found  easier 
125 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

to  pull  it  together  and  hold  it  tight  and 
smooth.  It  will  be  found  a  good  plan  to 
touch  the  outer  edges  of  the  frame  you 
are  covering  with  glue  just  before  cover- 
ing. When  the  glue  dries  the  cloth  will 
thus  be  held  firmly  in  position.  The  cloth 
may  be  fastened  to  the  outer  edges  by 
glueing  or  sewing. 

A  simple  but  effective  plan  for  mount- 
ing the  stability-planes  is  suggested  by  the 
models  here  illustrated.  The  frame  of  the 
motor-base  may  be  made  the  width  of  the 
smaller  frame  and  fastened  between  the 
two  sticks.  It  should  be  left  free  so  that 
it  may  be  tilted  up  or  down  and  fixed  in 
any  position.  If  the  rear  stability-plane 
is  to  serve  as  rudder  it  should  of  course  be 
mounted  vertically  so  that  it  may  be  turned 
to  right  or  left.  Be  sure  to  make  your 
frame  sufficiently  strong  and  rigid.  A 
light  frame  which  will  vibrate  when  the 
motor  turns  or  is  shaken  by  the  wind  will 
be  found  very  troublesome  indeed. 

The  cylindrical  forms  of  planes  (Plate 
21 )  carries  the  foregoing  principles  a  step 
126 


BUILDING  A  BIPLANE 

further.  A  surprising  degree  of  stability 
is  obtained  by  thus  enclosing  the  air,  and 
by  throwing  out  several  lateral  stability- 
planes  fore  and  aft.  The  models  may  be 
constructed  of  heavy  wire,  ordinary  um- 
brella wire  will  answer  the  purpose,  and 
may  be  readily  bent.  The  planes  in  the 
accompanying  model  are  merely  suggest- 
ive. The  broad  planes  placed  forward, 
well  above  the  diameter,  promise  well,  but 
the  rear  wings  appear  unstable  and  small 
for  the  other  surface.  The  forward  or 
lifting-plane  is  again,  much  too  narrow. 
The  cylindrical  form  is  equipped  with  a 
double  propeller,  one  before  and  the  other 
in  the  rear,  both  mounted  on  a  bar,  which 
forms  the  exact  axis  of  the  cylinder.  This 
adjustment  will  give  you  a  very  pleasant 
surprise.  The  vibration  and  torque  of  the 
two  propellers  seem  to  equalize  one  an- 
other, and  the  thrust  is  much  more  steady 
than  in  the  case  of  a  single  screw.  The 
thrust  is  not  only  double,  in  this  way,  but 
the  gain  for  stability  is  surprising.  The 
model  should  be  mounted  on  skids  to 
127 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

assist  it  in  rising,  and  to  take  up  the  force 
of  the  impact  on  landing. 

The  double  propeller,  mounted  on  the 
same  shaft,  may  be  used  successfully  in 
many  models.  A  very  simple  monoplane 
form  (Plate  22)  may  be  equipped  in  this 
way.  If  two  or  more  planes  be  mounted 
between  the  propellers,  an  astonishing 
soaring  quality  may  be  had.  It  is  an  ex- 
cellent plan  to  fasten  the  planes  to  the 
frame  at  first  by  rubber  bands,  so  that  they 
may  be  pushed  up  or  down  readily,  and 
adjusted  and  weighted  to  suit  the  condi- 
tions. 

There  is  danger  in  this  form,  however, 
that  the  plane  will  turn  completely  over  in 
its  flight,  although  this  will  have  little 
effect  upon  the  thrust  or  direction.  The 
model  is  exceedingly  simple  to  make.  The 
propellers  should  not  be  too  large,  not 
more  than  twice  the  diameter  of  the  planes 
at  most.  The  two  propellers  must,  of 
course,  be  turned  in  opposite  directions, 
to  correct  the  twisting  tendency. 

Should  you  construct  a  motor-base  of 
128 


BUILDING  A  BIPLANE 

this  kind  with  propellers  at  either  end  it 
will  be  found  interesting  to  experiment  by 
attaching  planes  of  different  shapes  and 
sizes.  It  requires  very  little  surface  to 
keep  such  a  monoplane  afloat.  Instead  of 
the  circular  and  elliptical  plane  placed 
lengthwise,  as  in  the  accompanying  model, 
try  the  effect  of  larger  circles  and  broader 
ellipses,  placing  the  latter  sideways.  This 
may  be  varied  by  using  small  rectangular 
planes  with  the  corners  rounded  off. 
Sooner  or  later  you  will  hit  upon  a  shape  of 
plane  and  a  spacing  which  will  give  you 
good,  steady  flights  of  surprising  length. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  a  good  motor- 
base  be  built  with  double  propellers  and 
the  various  forms  of  planes  tested  out  upon 
it.  Let  us  carry  this  idea  further  and,  now 
that  we  have  had  some  experience  in  build- 
ing aeroplane  models,  construct  a  quad- 
ruple motor-base;  that  is  a  motor-base 
with  four  strands  of  rubber  bands  and  four 
propellers,  two  forward  and  two  aft.  The 
four  would  of  course  have  to  be  very  nicely 
balanced.  The  two  sets  of  propellers  if 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

carefully  set  up  would  tend  to  correct  one 
another,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  cylindrical 
and  other  double  propellers  thus  giving  a 
very  steady  flight.  The  increased  speed  of 
such  a  motor  would  carry  any  good  model 
at  a  much  higher  rate  of  speed  than  any  of 
the  present  forms. 

There  is  a  very  simple  rule  to  be  remem- 
bered in  building  all  biplanes,  regarding 
the  spacing  of  the  planes.  The  distance 
between  the  super-imposed  planes  should 
always  be  equal  to  the  width  of  the  planes 
themselves.  A  beautiful  model  (Plate  23) 
is  here  reproduced,  to  show  how  not  to 
space  your  planes.  In  all  other  respects 
the  model  is  excellent.  The  planes  them- 
selves are  beautifully  constructed  and  sci- 
entifically curved.  It  is  interesting  to 
note,  in  this  case,  that  the  front  and  rear 
sets  of  planes  would  be  much  too  far  apart 
were  they  flat  surfaces,  but  being  flexed  as 
they  are,  their  supporting  power  is  greatly 
increased.  By  placing  them  so  far  apart, 
a  longer  and  more  powerful  motor  may  be 
used.  The  rudders,  both  fore  and  aft,  are 
132 


BUILDING  A  BIPLANE 

adjustable,  and  appear  very  effective  and 
shipshape. 

The  method  of  tuning  up  the  planes  in 
this  model  is  especially  to  be  recom- 
mended. From  a  post,  placed  at  the  center 
of  the  planes,  wires  are  run  to  the  corners 
which  holds  the  frame  perfectly  taut.  For 
the  main  frame,  or  backbone,  a  metal  tube 
has  been  used  which  greatly  adds  to  the 
appearance  of  the  model.  This  aluminium 
tubing  may  be  bought  cheaply  and  will 
serve  admirably  for  this  purpose. 

The  most  popular  of  all  models,  among 
amateur  aeronauts  in  America,  at  least,  is 
the  Wright  machine  (Plates  24-25).  The 
opinion  is  ventured  that  this  is  due  more 
to  the  attractiveness  of  its  lines  and  the 
pride  we  all  take  in  its  wonderful  achieve- 
ments, than  to  its  actual  flying  ability  as 
a  model.  The  most  perfect  of  these 
models  will  rarely  fly  more  than  a  hundred 
feet.  They  will  be  found  exceedingly  dif- 
ficult to  weight  and  adjust  so  that  they 
will  maintain  their  course  in  a  disturbed 
air  current. 

133 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

The  planes  of  these  models  are  usually 
made  separate  from  the  motor  base.  The 
shafts  of  the  propellers,  with  the  rubber 
motors  and  skids,  are  built  up  in  a  single 
piece.  This  plan  has  the  advantage  of 
making  the  planes  adjustable  so  that  they 
may  move  backward  or  forward  as  desired. 
The  model  leaves  the  ground  from  a  base, 
much  the  same  as  the  rail  used  by  the  large 
Wright  machines.  Some  models  are  even 
started  by  the  propulsion  of  a  rubber  band 
attached  to  the  frame,  which  is  pulled  back 
and  released,  like  the  old-fashioned  sling 
shot. 


134 


CHAPTER   IX 

COMBINING    MONOPLANE    AND    BIPLANE    FORMS 

ALTHOUGH  the  regular  biplane  form 
is  exceedingly  difficult  to  manage  in 
small  models,  there  is  great  advantage  in 
combining  it  with  the  monoplane  forms 
(Plate  26).  The  biplane  makes  an  excel- 
lent lifting  plane,  and  when  the  model 
combines  with  it  a  broad  monoplane  for 
stability,  surprisingly  long  flights  may  be 
made.  The  model  here  illustrated  has 
flown  218  feet  6  inches. 

Despite  its  size,  the  model  is  exceed- 
ingly light.  It  is  made  almost  entirely  of 
dowel  sticks  braced  with  piano  wire.  Still 
another  advantage  of  the  biplane  form  is 
the  action  of  the  supporting  surface  when 
it  comes  to  descend.  The  model  settles 
easily  to  the  ground,  in  contrast  to  many 
monoplane  models  which  come  down  with 
137 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

a  dislocating  shock.  The  skids  of  this 
model  are  simple  and  effective.  In  a 
model  of  this  form  it  is  obviously  best  to 
have  the  propellers  drive  rather  than  pull 
it. 

An  ingenious  young  aeronaut  has  re- 
versed the  above  order  and  placed  his  bi- 
plane in  the  rear,  using  the  monoplane  for 
lifting  (Plate  27).  His  model  is  unusually 
large,  having  a  spread  of  four  feet.  The 
biplane  is  square,  with  lateral  stability 
planes  on  either  side.  The  elevating 
planes  appear  small  in  proportion,  but  they 
serve  to  keep  the  craft  on  an  even  keel. 
The  most  striking  feature  of  this  model  is 
its  extreme  lightness.  Although  unusu- 
ally large,  it  weighs  but  nine  ounces.  The 
frame,  except  for  the  braces  is  built  of 
reed.  The  planes  are  covered  with  parch- 
ment. The  model  is  driven  by  two  rather 
small  propellers.  The  position  of  the  pro- 
pellers will  appear,  at  first  glance,  to  be 
rather  low,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  extreme  lightness  of  the  model 
brings  the  center  of  gravity  very  far  down. 
138 


COMBINING  FORMS 

The  model  has  flown  more  than  two  hun- 
dred feet. 

The  stability  of  the  models  thus  com- 
bining the  monoplane  and  biplane  forms 
comes  as  a  surprise.  Both  the  models  in 
question  rise  easily  from  the  ground, 
which  is  more  than  can  be  said  of  many 
aeroplanes  big  or  little,  and  once  aloft 
maintain  a  steady  horizontal  flight,  which 
is  still  more  unusual.  An  interesting  field 
of  experiment  is  suggested  by  these  com- 
binations. These  successful  experiments 
have  been  made  with  perfectly  flat  planes. 
Suppose  now  we  try  them  out  with  flexed 
planes.  If  the  stability  thus  gained  may 
be  combined  with  the  increased  soaring 
quality  of  the  curved  plane,  we  may  be  on 
the  way  to  making  some  remarkable 
flights.  In  the  summer  of  1909  a  number 
of  boys  built  and  flew  model  aeroplanes 
in  New  York,  when  many  interesting  and 
well  constructed  modes  were  brought  out, 
and  the  longest  flight  was  only  sixty  feet. 
Less  than  one  year  later  the  same  boys 
succeeded  in  flying  their  machines  for 
141 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

more  than  two  hundred  feet.  The  new 
models  were  no  larger,  the  motors  no 
more  powerful,  but  the  machine  had  be- 
come more  ship  shape  and  efficient.  It  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  each  year  will 
bring  a  similar  advance. 


142 


CHAPTER    X 

FAULTS   AND   HOW   TO   MEND    THEM 

YOUR  model,  perhaps  a  beautiful  one, 
finished  in  every  part,  may  twist  and 
tip  about  as  soon  as  it  is  launched  and 
quickly  dart  to  the  ground.  The  fault  is 
likely  to  be  in  the  propeller,  being  too 
large  for  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
machine.  This  may  be  remedied  by  add- 
ing a  weight  to  the  front  of  the  machine, 
by  wiring  on  a  nut  or  piece  of  metal. 
Should  this  fail  to  steady  the  aeroplane, 
the  propeller  must  be  cut  down. 

When  your  propeller  is  too  small  the 
machine  will  not  rise  from  the  ground,  or, 
if  launched  in  the  air,  will  quickly  flutter 
to  earth.  If  the  model  on  leaving  your 
hand,  with  the  propeller  in  full  motion, 
fails  to  keep  its  position  from  the  very 
start,  the  blade  should  be  made  larger. 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

There  is  no  use  in  wasting  time  and 
patience  over  the  machine  as  it  is. 

Many  a  beginner,  with  mistaken  zeal, 
constructs  a  too  powerful  motor.  The 
power  in  this  case  turns  the  propeller  too 
swiftly  for  it  to  grasp  the  air.  It  merely 
bores  a  hole  in  the  air  and  exerts  little 
propelling  force.  An  ordinary  motor 
when  wound  up  one  hundred  and  fifty 
turns  should  take  about  ten  seconds,  per- 
haps a  trifle  longer,  to  unwind.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  time  it  before  chancing  a 
flight. 

Bad  bracing  is  another  frequent  source 
of  trouble.  The  planes  should  be  abso- 
lutely rigid.  Test  your  model  by  winding 
up  your  motor  and  letting  it  run  down 
while  keeping  the  aeroplane  suspended, 
by  holding  it  loosely  in  one  hand.  If  the 
motor  racks  the  machine,  that  is,  if  the 
little  ship  is  all  a-flutter  and  the  planes 
tremble  visibly,  the  entire  frame  needs 
tuning  up.  It  is  impossible  for  an  aero- 
plane to  hold  its  course  if  the  planes  are 
in  the  least  wabbly.  The  braces  should  be 
144 


FAULTS 

taut.  A  loose  string  or  wire  incidentally 
offers  as  much  resistance  to  the  air  as  a 
wooden  post. 

The  flight  of  your  model  aeroplane 
should  be  horizontal,  with  little  or  no 
wave-motion.  Your  craft  at  first  may  rise 
to  a  considerable  height,  say  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet,  then  plunge  downward,  right 
itself,  and  again  ascend,  and  repeat  this 
rather  violent  wave-motion  until  it  strikes 
the  ground.  To  overcome  this,  look  care- 
fully to  the  angle  or  lift  of  your  front  plane 
or  planes  and  to  the  weighting. 

The  explanation  is  very  simple.  As  the 
aeroplane  soars  upward,  the  air  is  com- 
pressed beneath  the  planes,  and  this  con- 
tinues until  the  surface  balances,  tilts 
forward,  and  the  downward  flight  com- 
mences. Your  planes  should  be  so  in- 
clined that  the  center  of  air-pressure  comes 
about  one  third  of  the  distance  back  from 
the  front  edge.  The  center  of  gravity  of 
each  plane,  however,  should  come  slightly 
in  front  of  the  center  of  pressure.  After 
all,  the  best  plan  is  to  proceed  by  the  rule 
145 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

of  thumb,  and  tilt  your  planes  little  by 
little,  and  add  or  lessen  the  weight  in  one 
place  or  another,  until  the  flight  is  hori- 
zontal and  stable. 

If  your  aeroplane  does  not  rise  from  the 
ground,  but  merely  slides  along,  the 
trouble  is  likely  to  be  in  your  lifting 
plane.  Tilt  it  a  trifle  and  try  again.  The 
simplest  way  to  do  this  is  to  make  the 
front  skids  higher  than  those  at  the  back. 
If  the  front  skids  are  too  high,  the  plane 
will  shoot  up  in  the  air  and  come  down 
within  a  few  feet. 

The  most  carefully  constructed  model  is 
likely  to  go  awry  in  the  early  flights.  The 
propeller  seems  to  exert  a  twist  or  torque, 
as  it  is  called,  which  sends  it  to  the  right 
or  left,  or  up  or  down,  even  in  a  perfectly 
undisturbed  atmosphere.  It  is  assumed 
that  your  model  is  symmetrical.  An  aero- 
plane not  properly  balanced,  which  is 
larger  on  one  side  than  the  other,  or  in 
which  the  motor  is  not  exactly  centered, 
cannot,  of  course,  be  expected  to  fly 
straight.  However,  to  be  on  the  safe  side, 
146 


FAULTS 

go  all  over  the  machine  again.  Measure 
its  planes  to  see  that  the  propeller  is  in  the 
center.  Hold  it  up  in  front  of  you  right 
abeam,  and  test  with  your  eye  if  the  parts 
be  properly  balanced. 

If  it  still  flies  badly  askew,  flex  the 
planes  by  bending  the  ends  up  or  down 
very  slightly  by  tightening  or  loosening 
the  wire  braces  running  to  the  corners, 
At  the  same  time  add  a  little  weight  to 
counteract  the  tipping  tendency.  A  nut 
or  key  may  be  wired  on  the  edge  which 
persists  in  turning  up.  It  may  require 
much  more  weight  than  you  imagine.  The 
difference  should  begin  to  show  at  once. 
Even  after  a  model  appears  to  work  fairly 
well  as  a  glider,  the  addition  of  the  motor 
may  so  change  the  center  of  gravity  that 
it  will  "  cut  up  "  dreadfully. 

It  will  be  well  to  leave  your  planes  loose 
so  that  they  may  be  shifted  back  and  forth 
and  not  fasten  them  till  you  have  tried  out 
the  motor.  If  you  followed  the  plan  sug- 
gested of  fastening  the  plane  to  the  central 
frame  by  crossing  rubber  bands  over  it, 
147 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

you  can  easily  adjust  them.  If  the  model 
tends  to  fly  upward  at  a  sharp  angle,  slide 
the  front  plane  forward  an  inch,  and  try 
another  flight.  There  is  an  adjustment 
somewhere  which  will  give  the  model  the 
steady,  horizontal  flight  you  are  after. 

Some  models  will  refuse  to  rise  and 
swing  around  in  an  abrupt  circle  the  mo- 
ment the  motor  is  turned  on.  This  may  be 
caused  by  the  propeller  being  much  too 
small  for  the  motor.  After  looking  over 
all  the  photographs  of  the  models  shown 
in  these  pages  you  will  gain  an  idea  of  the 
proper  proportion,  and  be  able  to  tell  off- 
hand if  the  propeller  is  out  of  proportion. 
A  small  propeller  revolving  very  rapidly, 
or  racing,  is  likely  to  give  the  model  a 
torque,  even  if  it  be  otherwise  well  pro- 
portioned. Don't  try  to  remedy  this  with 
rudder  surfaces,  but  change  your  pro- 
peller, or  your  motor,  or  both. 

When   your   aeroplane   turns   in   long, 

even  curves  to  one  side  or  the  other,  look 

to  your  rudder  surface.     Turn  it  to  one 

side  or  the  other,  just  as  you  would  in 

148 


FAULTS 

steering  a  boat.  It  is,  of  course,  obvious 
that  it  must  be  kept  rigidly  in  position.  If 
a  slight  turn  of  the  rudder  does  not 
straighten  out  the  flight,  you  probably 
need  more  guiding  surface,  and  the  rudder 
must  be  enlarged.  If  the  model  still  con- 
tinues to  turn  away  from  a  straight  line, 
tilting  as  it  does  so,  try  a  little  weight  at 
the  end  of  the  plane  which  rises. 

The  commonest  of  all  accidents  to  aero- 
plane models  is  the  smashing  up  of  the 
skids  on  landing.  A  model  will  frequently 
rise  to  a  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet, 
and  the  shock  of  a  fall  from  such  an  eleva- 
tion is  likely  to  work  havoc  in  the  under- 
body.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  why 
your  model  should  not  come  down  as 
lightly  as  a  bird  from  the  crest  of  the  flight 
wave.  The  model,  when  properly  propor- 
tioned, weighted,  or  balanced,  will  settle 
down  gradually  and  not  pitch  violently. 
It  is  these  quick  darts  to  earth  which  cause 
the  worst  disasters. 

A  model  should  have  sufficient  support- 
ing surface  to  break  its  fall  when  the 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

motor  runs  down,  at  any  reasonable  eleva- 
tion. If  the  model  aeroplane  falls  all  in 
a  heap,  as  soon  as  the  motor  slows  down, 
it  will  be  well  to  look  to  this  and  perhaps 
increase  the  size  of  your  planes.  As  a  gen- 
eral rule,  the  biplanes  or  the  models  in 
which  the  double  planes  have  been  used, 
either  for  lifting  or  soaring  planes,  will 
settle  down  more  gradually.  The  lateral 
planes,  whatever  their  position,  also  lend 
valuable  support  when  the  critical  time 
comes  in  the  descent.  Your  model  is  not 
perfect  until  it  falls  easily  at  the  end  of  the 
flight. 

Under  perfect  condition,  in  absolutely 
undisturbed  air,  an  aeroplane  may  be 
made  to  come  down  so  lightly  that  no 
bones,  even  the  smallest,  will  be  broken. 
A  gust  of  wind,  however,  may  ruin  all 
your  calculations  and  bring  the  aeroplane 
down  with  a  dislocating  shock.  The  skids 
must  be  designed  to  meet  extreme  condi- 
tions, the  worst  that  can  possibly  befall. 
It  has  been  pointed  out  that  these  skids 
or  supports  should  be  high  enough  to  give 
152 


FAULTS 

the  propeller  clearance  so  that  the  pro- 
peller blades  will  not  touch  the  ground. 
By  using  a  light  flexible  cane  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  bending  them  under,  a  spring 
may  be  formed  which  will  take  up  the 
shock  of  a  violent  landing.  Some  builders 
go  further  and  rig  up  the  skids  with  braces 
of  rubber  bands  to  increase  this  cushion 
effect.  A  variety  of  constructions  are 
shown  in  the  photographs  of  the  various 
models.  Your  skids  should  enable  your 
model  to  withstand  any  ordinary  shock  of 
landing,  without  breakage  of  any  kind. 

The  life  of  your  motor  can  be  greatly 
increased  by  careful  handling.  The  rub- 
ber strands  are  likely  to  be  worn  away 
against  the  hooks  at  either  end.  The  wire 
used  for  the  hooks  should  be  as  heavy  as 
possible  to  keep  it  from  cutting  through. 
Be  careful  that  the  wire  which  comes  in 
contact  with  the  rubber  is  perfectly 
smooth  and  flawless.  A  little  roughness 
or  a  spur  on  the  wire  will  soon  cut  through 
the  rubber.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  slip  a 
piece  of  rubber  tubing  tightly  over  the 
155 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

hook  and  loop  the  rubber  bands  of  your 
motor  over  this  cushion. 

The  first  break  in  the  rubber  bands  is 
likely  to  come  near  the  center  of  the 
strand.  A  number  of  loose  ends  appear. 
The  broken  ends  should  be  knotted  neatly 
and  the  loose  ends  cut  away.  If  the 
strands  come  in  contact  with  any  part  of 
the  motor  base,  a  breaking  will  quickly  fol- 
low, and  your  strands  soon  become  cov- 
ered with  a  fringe  of  loose  ends.  Be  care- 
ful to  tie  up  all  loose  ends  and  trim  them 
away,  since  the  ends  in  twisting  serve  to 
break  other  strands.  Although  the  finer 
strands  of  rubber  give  the  greater  thrust, 
do  not  buy  them  too  small,  since  they  are 
easily  broken. 

The  length  of  your  motor  base  beyond 
the  front  plane  should  be  carefully  calcu- 
lated. It  is  very  easy,  of  course,  to  run 
your  shaft  too  far  forward.  The  center  of 
gravity  is  easily  shifted  in  this  way,  and 
your  model  soon  becomes  unmanageable. 
An  aeroplane  with  this  fault  will  not  rise, 
but  merely  pitches  forward  under  the 
156 


FAULTS 

thrusts  of  the  motor.  It  is  almost  useless 
to  attempt  to  balance  this  by  weighting 
the  machine.  The  front  plane  should  be 
placed  further  forward,  and  if  the  lifting 
surface  does  not  seem  sufficient,  cut  away 
the  front  of  your  motor  base,  once  for  all. 
A  too  short  motor  base,  on  the  other  hand, 
will  cause  your  model  to  shoot  upward  at 
a  sharp  angle,  and  waste  much  valuable 
propelling  power  before  it  rights  itself  and 
takes  a  regular  horizontal  flight. 

In  the  model  aeroplane  there  is  only  one 
point  where  friction  affects  the  flight, 
namely,  along  the  propeller  shaft.  One 
can  hardly  be  too  careful  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  axle.  The  thrust  of  the  rubber 
at  best,  is  limited,  and  this  power  must  be 
exerted  without  loss  of  any  kind.  A  faulty 
propeller  shaft  will  use  up  a  surprising 
amount  of  energy.  Your  rubber  motor 
should  unwind  to  within  one  or  two  turns. 

Bear  in  mind  that  one  of  four  things  is 
likely  to  be  responsible  for  your  trouble. 
The  planes  may  not  be  properly  placed  on 
the  frame,  they  may  not  be  properly 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

flexed,  they  are  not  set  at  the  proper  angle 
of  elevation,  or  your  motor  is  at  fault. 
Watch  these  points,  and  you  will  soon 
have  your  machine  under  perfect  control. 
In  the  extremely  complicated  models  it  is 
often  difficult  to  locate  the  fault.  Build 
your  model  so  that  these  parts  may  be  ad- 
justed in  a  moment  without  taking  apart. 
After  you  have  built  an  aeroplane  model, 
even  a  very  simple  one,  the  pictures  of 
other  aeroplanes  will  have  a  new  meaning 
for  you.  Every  new  model  you  see  will 
give  you  some  new  idea.  A  number  of  the 
most  successful  aeroplane  models  in  the 
country  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
photographs.  Study  these  carefully,  and 
you  will  learn  more  from  them  of  practi- 
cal aeroplane  construction  than  from  any 
amount  of  reading. 


160 


PART   II 

THE  HISTORY  AND  SCIENCE  OF 
AVIATION 


CHAPTER    I 

THE  FIRST  FLYING  MACHINES 

THE  conquest  of  the  air  was  not  won 
by  a  happy  accident  of  invention. 
Long  before  man  learned  to  fly  the  science 
of  aviation  had  to  be  created  by  investiga- 
tion and  experiment.  At  first  with  very 
crude  attempts,  a  great  many  flying  ma- 
chines had  to  be  built,  and  many  lives 
sacrificed  in  flying  them.  The  exact 
nature  of  the  invisible  air  currents  and  the 
action  of  wings  and  planes,  were  to  be 
learned  before  the  delicate  mechanism  of 
the  modern  aeroplane  was  possible.  Prob- 
ably no  other  great  invention  has  required 
such  long  and  patient  preparation. 

In  many  ways  the  aeroplane  is  therefore 
a  greater  achievement  than  the  steam  en- 
gine or  the  steamboat.  When  Watt  turned 
from  watching  his  tea  kettle  to  build  his 
163 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

engine,  he  applied  mechanical  principles 
which  had  long  been  in  actual  use,  and 
there  were  many  experienced  mechanics 
to  help  him.  Robert  Fulton,  again,  when 
he  set  up  his  engine,  found  the  science  of 
boat-building  highly  developed.  The  avi- 
ator had  no  such  advantage.  He  must 
first  of  all  build  a  craft  which  would  keep 
afloat  in  the  most  unstable  of  mediums. 
A  motive  power  had  to  be  applied  to  suit 
these  conditions,  and  the  two  must  be  so 
attuned  that  they  would  work  perfectly 
together  when  the  least  slip  would  mean 
instant  disaster.  As  we  learn  to  realize 
these  difficulties  we  will  appreciate  more 
than  ever  how  marvellous  a  creation  is  the 
modern  aeroplane. 

Man  has  thought  much  about  flying 
from  the  earliest  times.'  The  open  air  has 
always  seemed  the  natural  highway,  and 
flying  machines  were  invented  hundreds 
of  years  before  anyone  dreamed  of  steam- 
engines  or  steamboats.  The  ancient 
Greeks  long  ago  spun  wonderful  tales  of 
the  mythical  Daedalus  and  Icarus  and 
164 


THE    FIRST   FLYING   MACHINES 

their  flight  to  the  sun  and  back  again. 
The  first  practical  aviator  seems  to  have 
been  a  Greek  named  Achytas,  and  we  are 
told  he  invented  a  dove  of  wood  propelled 
by  heated  air.  There  is  another  ancient 
record  of  a  brass  fly  which  made  a  short 
flight,  so  that  we  may  be  sure  that  even 
the  ancients  had  their  own  ideas  about 
heavier-than-air  machines. 

As  far  as  we  may  judge  from  these 
quaint  old  records  the  early  aviators  at- 
tempted to  fly  with  wings  which  they 
flapped  about  them  in  imitation  of  birds. 
About  the  year  67  A.  D.,  during  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Nero,  an  aviator  named 
"  Simon  the  Magician "  made  a  public 
flight  before  a  Roman  crowd.  According 
to  the  record,  "  He  rose  into  the  air 
through  the  assistance  of  demons.  But 
St.  Peter  having  offered  a  prayer,  the  ac- 
tion of  the  demons  ceased  and  the  magi- 
cian was  crushed  in  a  fall  and  perished 
instantly."  The  end  of  the  account,  which 
sounds  very  probable  indeed,  is  the  first 
aeronautical  smash-up  on  record. 
167 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

Even  in  these  early  days  the  interest  in 
aeronautics  appears  to  have  been  wide- 
spread. It  is  recorded  that  a  British  king 
named  Baldud  succeeded  in  flying  over  the 
city  of  Trinovante,  but  unfortunately  fell 
and,  landing  on  a  temple,  was  instantly 
killed.  In  the  eleventh  century  a  Bene- 
dictine monk  built  a  pair  of  wings  mod- 
elled upon  the  poet  Ovid's  description  of 
those  used  by  Daedalus,  which  was  ap- 
parently a  very  uncertain  model.  The  avi- 
ator jumped  from  a  high  tower  against  the 
wind,  and,  according  to  the  record,  sailed 
for  125  feet,  when  he  fell  and  broke  both 
his  legs.  That  he  should  have  attempted 
to  fly  against  the  wind,  by  the  way,  indi- 
cates some  knowledge  of  aircraft. 

If  we  may  trust  the  rude  folklore  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  glider  form  of  airship 
which  anticipated  the  modern  aeroplane 
was  used  with  some  success  a  thousand 
years  ago.  An  inventor  named  Oliver  of 
Malmesburg,  built  a  glider  and  soared  for 
370  feet,  which  would  be  a  creditable 
record  for  such  a  craft  even  in  our  day. 
168 


THE    FIRST   FLYING   MACHINES 

A  hundred  years  later  a  Saracen  attempted 
to  fly  in  the  same  way  and  was  killed  by  a 
fall.  The  number  of  men  who  have  given 
their  lives  to  the  cause  of  aviation  in  all 
these  centuries  of  experiment  must  be  con- 
siderable. 

Meanwhile  the  kite  and  balloon  had 
long  been  in  use  in  China.  There  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  that  kites  were  well  under- 
stood and  even  put  to  practical  use  in  time 
of  war  as  early  as  300  B.  C.  A  Chinese 
general,  Han  Sin,  is  said  to  have  actually 
signalled  by  kites  to  a  beleaguered  city 
that  he  was  outside  the  walls  and  expected 
to  lend  assistance.  And  a  French  mission- 
ary visiting  China  in  1694  reported  that  he 
had  seen  the  records  of  the  coronation  of 
the  Emperor  Fo  Kien  in  1306  which  de- 
scribed the  balloon  ascensions  that  formed 
part  of  the  ceremony. 

The  fifteenth  century  was  the  most  act- 
ive period  in  aeronautical  experiments 
before  our  own.  A  number  of  intelligent 
minds  worked  at  the  problem  and  notable 
progress  was  made,  although  all  fell  short 
169 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

of  flying.  Even  in  the  light  of  our  present 
knowledge  of  aeronautics  we  must  admire 
the  thorough,  scientific  way  the  aviators 
went  about  their  work  five  centuries  ago. 
Many  of  their  discoveries  have  been  of 
great  assistance  to  our  modern  aviators. 
Had  these  investigators  possessed  our 
modern  machinery,  of  which  they  knew 
little  or  nothing,  it  is  very  likely  they 
would  actually  have  flown. 

One  of  the  greatest  of  these  investiga- 
tors was  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  famous  as 
architect  and  engineer  as  well  as  painter 
and  sculptor.  To  begin  at  the  beginning 
of  the  subject,  he  dissected  the  bodies  of 
many  birds  and  made  careful,  technical 
drawings  to  illustrate  the  theory  of  the 
action  of  wings.  These  drawings  and  de- 
scriptions are  still  preserved,  and  even  to- 
day repay  careful  study.  He  also  calcu- 
lated with  great  detail  the  amount  of  force 
which  would  be  necessary  to  drive  such 
machines.  Plans  were  prepared  for  flying 
machines  of  the  heavier  than  air  form  to  be 
driven  by  wings,  and  even  by  screw  pro- 
170 


A  Serviceable  Form  Made  of  Wire. 


THE    FIRST   FLYING   MACHINES 

pellers,  which  was  looking  far  into  the 
future. 

Among  all  these  early  experiments  the 
best  record  of  actual  flight  was  made  by 
Batitta  Dante,  a  brother  of  the  great 
Italian  poet.  In  1456  Dante  flew  in  a 
glider  of  his  own  construction  for  more 
than  800  feet  at  Perugia  in  Italy  and  a  few 
years  later  he  succeeded  in  flying  in  the 
same  glider  over  Lake  Trasimene.  The 
glides  made  by  the  Wright  Brothers  while 
perfecting  their  machines  seldom  reached 
this  length. 

For  several  centuries  it  was  believed 
that  a  lifting  screw,  if  one  could  be  built, 
would  supply  enough  lifting  power  to  sup- 
port a  heavier  than  air  machine.  Da  Vinci 
experimented  along  this  line  for  many 
years  and  even  built  a  number  of  models 
with  paper  screws.  This  form  of  flying 
machine  is  called  the  helicopeter.  The 
plan  was  then  abandoned  for  nearly  five 
centuries  and  revived  in  our  own  century. 
The  record  of  all  the  aviators  and  their 
experiments  would  fill  many  volumes. 
173 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

The  belief  that  man  could  learn  to  fly 
by  flapping  wings  up  and  down  was  not 
given  up  until  very  recently.  Nearly  all 
the  early  machines  were  built  on  this 
principle.  Man  can  never  fly  as  the  birds 
do  because  his  muscles  are  differently 
grouped.  In  the  birds  the  strongest  mus- 
cles, the  driving  power,  are  in  the  chest 
at  the  base  of  the  wings  where  they  are 
most  needed.  It  is  amusing  to  find  that 
while  the  birds  are  always  flying  before 
our  eyes  no  one  has  guessed  their  secrets. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  wrest 
their  secrets  from  them  by  attaching 
dynometers  to  their  wings  to  measure  the 
force  of  the  muscles  but  little  has  been 
learned  in  this  way.  One  scientist  calcu- 
lated that  a  goose  exerts  200  horse  power 
while  another  investigator  figured  out  that 
it  was  one  tenth  of  one  horse  power. 
Many  of  the  theories  of  flight  have  been 
quite  as  far  apart.  A  great  variety  of 
false  notions  about  flying  had  to  be  tried 
and  from  all  these  failures  man  slowly 
learned  the  road  he  must  follow. 


CHAPTER  II 

DEVELOPING  THE  AEROPLANE 

THE  opening  of  the  twentieth  century 
found  the  world  well  prepared  for 
actual  conquest  of  the  air.  Aviation  has 
been  developed  to  an  exact  science.  It  had 
taken  centuries  of  failure  to  teach  man 
that  he  could  not  fly  by  flapping  his  wings 
like  the  birds  but  the  idea  was  at  last  aban- 
doned. The  birds  were  still  the  models  of 
the  heavier-than-air  machines,  but  man 
had  at  last  learned  to  study  them  more  in- 
telligently. The  marvellous  development 
of  modern  mechanics,  especially  the  build- 
ing of  light  and  efficient  motors,  was  also 
of  great  importance.  The  theory  of  the 
aeroplane  was  rapidly  gaining  in  favor. 

It  was  thought  at  one  time  that  since 
no  birds  weighed  more  than  fifty  pounds 
no  flying  machine  heavier  than  this  could 
175 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

ever  fly.  Some  years  ago  Hiram  S.  Maxim 
pointed  out,  however,  that  if  we  had  built 
our  steam  engines  to  imitate  the  horse,  as 
we  then  hoped  to  build  flying  machines 
like  the  birds,  we  would  have  built  loco- 
motives which  weighed  only  five  tons,  the 
weight  of  an  elephant,  which  walked  five 
miles  an  hour.  The  secret  of  flight  evi- 
dently did  not  lie  in  closely  imitating  the 
familiar  forms  of  flight.  So  far  as  man 
was  interested  it  lay  clearly  in  the  soaring 
flights.  When  a  bird  flies  with  extended 
wings  it  does  two  things.  It  forms  an 
aeroplane  which  supports  its  body,  much 
the  same  as  a  kite,  and  it  operates  a  pro- 
peller for  driving  this  aeroplane  forward. 
And  so  men  finally  learned  to  fly  by  bor- 
rowing a  single  principle  from  the  birds. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  theory, 
and  largely  the  form,  of  the  modern  suc- 
cessful aeroplane  was  first  suggested  by 
an  English  inventor,  Sir  George  Cayley, 
as  early  as  1796.  Cayley  argued  that  a  flat 
plane  or  surface  when  driven  through  the 
air  inclined  slightly  upward  would  lift  a 
'176 


DEVELOPING  THE  AEROPLANE 

considerable  weight.  He  also  suggested 
that  a  tail  would  help  to  steady  the  plane 
as  well  as  steer  it  upward  or  downward. 
His  ideas  of  propelling  the  aeroplane  by 
screws  driven  by  motors  was  also  far  in 
advance  of  his  time,  but  the  engines  then 
in  existence  were  much  too  heavy  for  the 
purpose  and  he  never  built  a  model. 

Fifty  years  later,  when  the  steam  engine 
had  been  highly  developed,  these  old  plans 
were  remembered  and  two  engineers,  Hen- 
sen  and  Stringfellow,  actually  built  a  fly- 
ing machine  on  Cayley's  principles.  This 
early  aeroplane  was  of  the  monoplane 
form,  made  of  oiled  silk  stretched  over  a 
frame  of  bamboo.  A  car  to  carry  a  steam 
engine,  and  presumably  the  passengers, 
was  hung  below  this  plane.  The  motive 
power  was  supplied  by  two  propellers  at 
the  rear.  The  aeroplane  carried  a  fan- 
shaped  tail  with  a  rudder  for  steering  it 
sideways,  placed  beneath.  The  model  is 
said  to  have  actually  flown  for  a  short  dis- 
tance, but  proved  to  be  unstable. 

From  this  time  onward  the  experiments 
177 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

became  more  scientific  and  accurate.  Re- 
liable scientific  data  was  accumulated 
which  later  enabled  the  aviators  to  build 
practical  aeroplanes.  A  number  of  inter- 
esting experiments  were  made  shortly 
afterward  by  a  scientist  named  Wenham 
to  prove  that  the  lifting  powers  of  a  carry- 
ing surface  might  be  increased  by  arrang- 
ing small  surfaces  in  tiers  one  above  an- 
other. Wenham  had  watched  the  birds  to 
some  purpose,  and  decided  that  a  single 
plane,  large  enough  to  support  a  man 
would  be  too  large  to  control,  but  that  a 
number  of  small  surfaces  would  make  the 
bird  flight  possible.  Wenham  built  and 
patented  a  machine  in  1866.  He  never 
flew  but  he  collected  a  great  deal  of  valu- 
able information  about  the  behavior  of 
planes. 

The  slow,  but  on  the  whole,  encourag- 
ing movement  toward  the  successful  flying 
machine  was  given  a  serious  set  back  in 
1872  by  a  book  written  by  H.  Von  Hum- 
boldt  announcing  the  result  of  his  experi- 
ments. This  well  known  scientist,  whose 
178 


PLATE    XIV. 

The  Under  Body  of  the  Monoplane  Shown,  Plate    XIII. 


DEVELOPING  THE  AEROPLANE 

name  carried  great  weight,  wrote  that  me- 
chanical flight  was  impossible.  He  based 
his  idea  on  the  discovery  that  as  the  body 
increased  in  size  the  work  or  power  re- 
quired to  lift  it  increased  more  rapidly 
than  the  size  of  the  body.  In  other  words, 
a  very  large  bird  or  flying  machine  could 
not  contain  muscles  strong  enough  or 
machinery  strong  enough  to  enable  it  to 
fly.  He  argued  that  no  bird  larger  than 
the  albatross,  for  instance  had  ever  lived, 
therefore  no  flying  machines  could  ever  be 
more  than  toys.  The  book  was  so  discour- 
aging that  many  aviators  gave  up  their  ex- 
periments and  the  science  of  aviation  stood 
still. 

It  may  be  said  to  have  been  awakened, 
however,  by  the  German  scientist,  Otto 
Lilenthal,  whose  book,  published  in  1886, 
at  once  attracted  world  wide  attention.  It 
was  this  book,  incidentally,  which  inspired 
the  Wright  Brothers  to  begin  their  experi- 
ments. Lilenthal  was  not  only  a  great 
scientist,  but  he  worked  on  the  principle 
that  an  ounce  of  actual  experience  was 
181 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

worth  a  ton  of  theory.  In  aviation,  where 
the  weight  is  all  important,  this  saving 
was  naturally  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Lilenthal  built  gliders,  many  of  them,  and 
put  to  actual  test  the  theories  which  others 
had  merely  talked  and  figured  about. 
Finally  he  set  up  an  engine  on  a  glider  but 
the  machine  turned  over  and  he  was  in- 
stantly killed.  The  scientific  information 
he  collected,  however,  proved  of  the  high- 
est value  to  those  who  later  actually  con- 
quered the  air. 

Lilenthal  built  a  hill  fifty  feet  in  height 
and  shaped  like  a  cone  with  sides  slanting 
at  an  angle  of  thirty  degrees.  Here  he 
proved  by  actual  tests  that  he  might  fly 
no  matter  which  way  the  wind  blew  and 
that  an  arched  surface,  driven  against  the 
wind,  would  rise  from  the  ground  and  sup- 
port his  weight.  A  great  deal  of  scientific 
information  was  collected  and  tabulated 
as  well  as  the  exact  effect  of  the  pressure 
of  the  air.  He  also  changed  the  shape  of 
the  gliding  surfaces,  making  them  very 
long  and  narrow  and  driving  them  edge- 
182 


DEVELOPING  THE  AEROPLANE 

wise  as  in  the  first  form  of  aeroplane.  The 
aeroplane  took  shape  in  his  hands.  The 
success  of  these  experiments  encouraged 
aviators  in  many  countries  to  imitate  him, 
and  so  great  was  the  interest  aroused  that 
even  his  fatal  accident  in  1896  did  not  dis- 
courage them.  The  successful  flying 
machine  was  now  actually  in  sight. 

For  a  time  it  was  believed  that  Hiram  S. 
Maxim  would  be  the  first  to  construct  a 
flying  machine  which  would  actually  fly. 
He  had  gone  about  the  problem  in  a  thor- 
oughly scientific  manner,  sparing  neither 
time  nor  expense.  An  elaborate  apparatus 
was  first  constructed  like  a  revolving 
derrick,  to  test  accurately  the  lifting 
powers  of  various  aeroplanes  of  various 
sizes  and  shapes  flying  at  different  angles, 
as  well  as  the  propelling  force,  of  many 
kinds  of  screws.  The  horizontal  arm  of 
this  machine  was  thirty  feet,  nine  inches 
long,  so  that  it  described  a  circle  of  200 
feet  in  circumference.  The  arm  was 
driven  by  an  engine  at  high  speed. 

The  various  aeroplane  forms  to  be  tested 
185 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

were  attached  to  the  extreme  end  of  this 
arm,  and  driven  by  propellers  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes,  exactly  as  they  would  be 
in  actual  flight.  Every  part  of  the 
machine,  meanwhile,  was  so  adjusted  that 
the  readings  of  the  speed  of  the  aeroplane, 
its  lifting  power,  the  exact  force  of  the 
propeller,  in  fact,  every  detail,  could  be 
measured  and  recorded  with  scientific  ac- 
curacy. This  preliminary  work  proved  to 
be  of  the  highest  value.  The  test  showed, 
for  instance,  just  what  size  the  propeller 
should  be  for  different  size  planes,  and  the 
exact  pitch  of  the  screw  which  would  give 
the  best  results,  the  proper  angle  of  eleva- 
tion for  the  front  plane,  the  resistance  of- 
fered by  various  shaped  planes,  and  the 
exact  amount  of  power  required  for  planes 
of  different  sizes.  A  delicate  machine  was 
also  built  to  test  the  different  kinds  of 
fabrics  used  for  covering  the  planes.  The 
fabric  was  stretched  over  a  small  steel 
frame,  mounted  at  a  slight  angle,  in  a  blast 
of  air.  The  tendency  of  the  cloth  to  lift 
or  drift  was  then  accurately  measured. 
186 


DEVELOPING  THE  AEROPLANE 

The  material  which  gave  the  greatest 
amount  of  lift  and  the  least  drift  was 
used. 

A  large  aeroplane  was  finally  built  in 
1893.  It  weighed  7500  pounds,  measured 
104  feet  in  width,  and  was  driven  by  a  360 
horsepower  engine.  Compared  with  the 
clear  cut,  ship-shape  air-craft  of  to-day 
this  early  model  appears  crude  and  cum- 
bersome. The  main  plane  was  almost 
square  in  shape,  while  stability  planes  ex- 
tended out  from  the  sides.  A  series  of  four 
narrow  planes,  one  above  another,  were 
carried  below  on  either  side.  The  machin- 
ery for  driving  was  carried  far  below  the 
main  plane.  The  two  large  propellers 
were  placed  in  the  stern.  The  aeroplane 
was  run  along  a  double-tracked  railroad 
1800  feet  in  length,  to  gather  sufficient 
momentum  to  cause  it  to  rise.  Almost  any 
school-boy  of  to-day  familiar  with  the 
aeroplane  models  could  have  told  at  a 
glance  that  the  machine  could  not  rise. 
When  it  was  finally  sent  down  the  track 
at  a  good  clip,  the  front  wheels  did  actu- 
187 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

ally  rise  a  trifle  but  it  immediately  came 
down  with  a  bad  smash. 

Not  in  the  least  discouraged,  Maxim  at 
once  designed  a  new  machine.  This  meas- 
ured fifty  feet  in  width  and  forty  feet  in 
length  in  the  middle,  but  with  the  corners 
cut  off,  so  that  it  was  sharpened  both  fore 
and  aft.  The  wings  were  made  long  and 
narrow,  extending  out  twenty-seven  feet 
beyond  the  main  plane,  and  large  fore  and 
aft  rudders  were  attached.  It  was  not 
even  expected  that  the  machine  would  fly. 
All  that  was  hoped  for  was  that  it  would 
lift  somewhat  so  that  its  upward  tendency 
might  be  accurately  measured. 

The  most  successful  "  flight "  of  this 
model  will  seem  a  very  tame  affair  indeed 
to  the  boys  of  to-day  who  are  daily  read- 
ing of  the  marvellous  voyages  in  air  across 
sea  and  land.  The  "  airship "  was  run 
over  its  track  and  the  steam  pressure  run 
up  to  329  pounds  per  square  inch.  The 
speed  increased  and  the  upward  thrust  be- 
gan to  be  felt.  Finally  the  front  wheels 
of  the  machine  actually  lifted  from  the 
188 


DEVELOPING  THE  AEROPLANE 

track.  The  rear  axle  rose  three  or  four 
feet  above  its  normal  position.  When  it 
alighted,  the  delighted  aeronauts  found 
that  the  wheels  of  the  machine  had  passed 
over  the  turf  for  a  very  short  distance, 
without  making  any  marks,  showing  that 
for  a  second  or  so  the  machine  was  actu- 
ally off  the  earth.  It  seems  curious  to  us 
to-day  that  this  "  flight  "  should  have  been 
considered  remarkable. 

The  experiments  carried  out  by  S.  P. 
Langley,  beginning  in  1887  and  lasting  for 
four  years,  placed  a  great  deal  of  valuable, 
scientific  data  in  the  hands  of  the  aviators. 
Thousands  of  tests  were  made  with  an  ap- 
paratus similar  to  that  used  by  Maxim. 
In  one  class  of  these  experiments  solid 
metal  planes  were  attached  to  the  end  of 
the  revolving  arm  in  such  a  way  that  they 
were  free  to  fall  for  a  fixed  distance. 
When  in  rapid,  horizontal  motion,  the 
metal  seemed  to  part  with  its  weight,  and 
the  material,  though  one  thousand  times 
heavier  than  the  air,  was  found  to  be  actu- 
ally supported  by  it.  It  was  proven,  for 
191 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

instance,  that  one  horse  power  would  sup- 
port over  200  pounds  weight  of  planes 
driven  at  a  speed  of  fifty  miles  an  heur. 

All  this  preliminary  work,  or  nearly  all, 
we  now  see,  was  necessary  before  a  prac- 
tical aeroplane  could  be  constructed.  The 
early  aviators,  although  they  did  not  fly, 
at  least  showed  what  not  to  do,  and  several 
paid  the  price  of  their  lives  for  this  knowl- 
edge. Lilenthal  had  mapped  out  the  aero- 
plane in  the  rough,  and  determined  the 
general  shape  it  must  take.  The  experi- 
ments of  Maxim  and  Langley  enabled  the 
successful  aviators  to  calculate  the  size  of 
the  machine  necessary  to  carry  them  and 
the  amount  of  power  required  to  drive  it. 


IQ2 


CHAPTER    III 

THE   WRIGHT   BROTHERS*    OWN    STORY 


Wright  Brothers  brought  to 
A  their  work  a  genius  for  invention 
and,  making  free  use  of  the  results  of  for- 
mer investigation  and  experiment,  finally 
succeeded  in  building  a  heavier  than  air 
machine  which  would  actually  fly.  The 
story  of  their  experiments  and  final  suc- 
cess, which  one  may  read  in  their  own 
words,  forms  one  of  the  most  fascinating 
chapters  in  the  history  of  invention. 

The  Wright  Brothers'  first  flying  ma- 
chine was  a  mere  toy.  "  Late  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1878"  they  tell  the  story,  "our 
father  came  into  the  house  one  evening 
with  some  object  partially  concealed  in  his 
hands,  and  before  we  could  see  what  it 
was,  he  tossed  it  into  the  air.  Instead  of 
falling  to  the  floor,  as  we  expected,  it  flew 
193 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

across  the  room  till  it  struck  the  ceiling, 
where  it  fluttered  for  a  while,  and  finally 
sank  to  the  floor.  It  was  a  little  toy  known 
to  scientists  as  a  '  helicoptere '  but  which 
we,  with  sublime  disregard  for  science, 
dubbed  a  bat.  It  was  a  light  frame  of  cork 
and  bamboo  which  formed  two  screws 
driven  in  opposite  directions  by  rubber 
bands  under  torsion.  A  toy  so  delicate 
lasted  only  a  short  time  in  the  hands  of 
small  boys,  but  its  memory  was  abiding." 
The  interest  of  the  brothers  in  aeronau- 
tics was  awakened.  "  We  began  building 
these  helicopteres  ourselves,"  their  story 
goes  on,  "  making  each  one  larger  than 
that  preceding.  But,  to  our  astonishment, 
we  found  that  the  larger  the  '  bat/  the  less 
it  flew.  We  did  not  know  that  a  machine 
having  only  twice  the  linear  dimensions 
of  another  would  require  eight  times  the 
power.  We  finally  became  discouraged, 
and  returned  to  kite-flying,  a  sport  to 
which  we  had  devoted  so  much  attention 
that  we  were  regarded  as  experts.  But  as 
we  became  older,  we  had  to  give  up  this 
194 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

fascinating  sport  as  unbecoming  to  boys 
of  our  age." 

The  Wrights  did  not  begin  their  exper- 
iments until  the  summer  of  1896.  They 
first  prepared  themselves  thoroughly  by 
reading  the  literature  on  aeronautics, 
making  themselves  familiar  with  the  re- 
sults of  all  the  experimental  work  of  the 
aviators  —  Langley,  Chanute,  Mouillard, 
and  others.  The  Wrights  soon  decided 
that  the  first  thing  to  be  solved  was  to 
build  aeroplanes  which  would  fly  and  that, 
until  this  was  solved,  it  was  foolish  to 
waste  time  building  delicate  and  costly 
machinery  to  operate  them.  They  took 
up  the  problems  of  the  glider  and  sought 
by  actual  tests  what  many  scientists  had 
been  theorizing  about  for  years. 

They  soon  discarded  the  various  forms 
of  gliders  then  used  for  experiments.  The 
tests  which  led  up  to  adopting  the  now 
famous  Wright  model,  the  basis  for  all 
heavier  than  air  machines  to-day,  occupied 
very  little  time.  The  story  of  this  mar- 
vellous discovery  which  will  rank  with 
197 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

that  of  Robert  Fulton  or  Watt,  is  best  told 
in  their  own  words,  which  are  here  some- 
what abbreviated. 

"  The  balancing  of  a  flier  may  seem,  at 
first  thought,  to  be  a  very  simple  matter," 
say  the  Wrights,  "  yet  almost  every  ex- 
perimenter had  found  in  this  the  point  he 
could  not  satisfactorily  master.  Many 
different  methods  were  tried.  Some  ex- 
perimenters place  the  center  of  gravity  far 
below  the  wings  in  the  belief  that  the 
wings  would  naturally  seek  to  remain  at 
the  lowest  point.  A  more  satisfactory  sys- 
tem, especially  for  lateral  balance,  was 
that  of  arranging  the  wings  in  the  shape 
of  a  broad  V  to  form  a  dihedral  angle,  with 
the  center  low  and  the  wing-tips  elevated. 
In  theory  this  was  an  automatic  action, 
but  in  practice  it  had  two  serious  defects; 
first,  it  tended  to  keep  the  machine  oscil- 
lating; and,  second,  its  usefulness  was  re- 
stricted to  calm  air.  Notwithstanding  the 
known  limitations  of  this  principle,  it  had 
been  embodied  in  almost  every  prominent 
flying-machine  which  had  been  built. 
198 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

"  We  reached  the  conclusion  that  such 
machines  might  be  of  interest  from  a  sci- 
entific point  of  view,  but  could  be  of  no 
value  in  a  practical  way.  We,  therefore, 
resolved  to  try  a  fundamentally  different 
principle.  We  would  arrange  the  flyer  so 
that  it  would  not  tend  to  right  itself.  We 
would  make  it  as  inert  as  possible  to  the 
effects  of  change  of  direction  or  speed,  and 
thus  reduce  the  effects  of  wind-gusts  to  a 
minimum.  We  would  do  this  in  the  fore- 
and-aft  stability  by  giving  the  aeroplanes 
a  peculiar  shape;  and  in  the  lateral  bal- 
ance, by  arching  the  surfaces  from  tip  to 
tip,  just  the  reverse  of  what  our  predeces- 
sors had  done.  Then  by  some  suitable 
contrivance,  actuated  by  the  operator, 
forces  should  be  brought  into  play  to  regu- 
late the  balance." 

"  Lilenthal  and  Chanute  had  guided  and 
balanced  their  machines  by  shifting  the 
weight  of  the  operator's  body.  But  this 
method  seemed  to  us  incapable  of  expan- 
sion to  meet  large  conditions,  because  the 
weight  to  be  moved  and  the  distance  of 
199 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

possible  motion  were  limited,  while  the 
disturbing  forces  steadily  increased,  both 
with  wing  area  and  wind  velocity.  In 
order  to  meet  the  needs  of  large  machines, 
we  wished  to  employ  some  system 
whereby  the  operator  could  vary  at  will 
the  inclination  of  different  parts  of  the 
wings,  and  thus  obtain  from  the  wind 
forces  to  restore  the  balance  which  wind 
itself  had  disturbed.  This  could  easily  be 
done  by  using  wings  capable  of  being 
warped,  and  adjustable  surfaces  in  the 
shape  of  rudders.  A  happy  device  was 
discovered  whereby  the  surfaces  could  be 
so  warped  that  aeroplanes  could  be  pre- 
sented on  the  right  and  left  sides  at  dif- 
ferent angles  to  the  wind.  This,  with 
an  adjustable  horizontal  front  rudder, 
formed  the  main  features  of  our  first 
glider." 

"  We  began  our  first  active  experiments 
at  the  close  of  this  period,  in  October, 
1900,  at  Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina. 
Our  machine  was  designed  to  be  flown  as 
a  kite,  with  a  man  on  board,  in  winds  of 
200 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

from  fifteen  to  twenty  miles  an  hour. 
But,  upon  trial,  it  was  found  that  much 
stronger  winds  were  required  to  lift  it. 
Suitable  winds  not  being  plentiful,  we 
found  it  necessary,  in  order  to  test  the 
new  balancing  system,  to  fly  the  machine 
as  a  kite  without  a  man  on  board,  operat- 
ing the  levers  through  cords  from  the 
ground.  This  did  not  give  the  practice 
anticipated,  but  it  inspired  confidence  in 
the  new  system  of  balance." 

"  The  machine  of  1901  was  built  with 
the  shape  of  surface  used  by  Lilenthal, 
curved  from  front  to  rear,  with  a  slight 
curvature  of  ^  of  its  cord.  But  to  make 
doubly  sure  that  it  would  have  sufficient 
lifting  capacity  when  flown  as  a  kite  in 
fifteen  or  twenty  mile  winds,  we  increased 
the  area  from  165  square  feet,  used  in  1900, 
to  308  square  feet,  a  size  much  larger  than 
Lilenthal,  Chanute,  or  Pilcher  had  deemed 
safe.  Upon  trial,  however,  the  lifting  ca- 
pacity again  fell  short  of  calculation,  so 
that  the  idea  of  securing  practice  while  fly- 
ing as  a  kite,  had  to  be  abandoned.  Mr. 
203 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

Chanute,  who  witnessed  the  experiments, 
told  us  that  the  trouble  was  not  due  to 
poor  construction  of  the  machine.  We 
saw  only  one  other  explanation  —  that  the 
tables  of  air  pressure  in  general  use  were 
incorrect." 

"  We  then  turned  to  gliding  —  coasting 
down  hill  in  the  air  —  as  the  only  method 
of  getting  the  desired  practice  in  balan- 
cing the  machine.  After  a  few  minutes' 
practice  we  were  able  to  make  glides  of 
300  feet,  and  in  a  few  days  were  safely 
operating  in  twenty-seven  mile  winds.  In 
these  experiments  we  met  with  several 
unexpected  phenomena.  We  found  that, 
contrary  to  the  teachings  of  the  books,  the 
center  of  pressure  on  a  curved  surface 
traveled  backward  when  the  surface  was 
inclined,  at  small  angles,  more  and  more 
edgewise  to  the  wind.  We  also  discovered 
that  in  free  flight,  when  the  wing  on  one 
side  of  the  machine  was  presented  to  the 
wind  at  a  greater  angle  than  the  one  on 
the  other  side,  the  wing  with  the  greater 
angle  descended,  and  the  machine  turned 
204 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

in  a  direction  just  the  reverse  of  what  we 
were  led  to  expect  when  flying  the  ma- 
chine as  a  kite.  The  larger  angle  gave 
more  resistance  to  forward  motion,  and 
reduced  the  speed  of  the  wing  on  that 
side.  The  decrease  in  speed  more  than 
counterbalanced  the  effect  of  the  larger 
angle.  The  addition  of  a  fixed  vertical 
vane  in  the  rear  increased  the  trouble,  and 
made  the  machine  absolutely  dangerous. 
It  was  some  time  before  a  remedy  was 
discovered.  This  consisted  of  movable 
rudders  working  in  conjunction  with  the 
twisting  of  the  wings." 

"  The  experiments  of  1901  were  far 
from  encouraging.  We  saw  that  the  cal- 
culations upon  which  all  flying-machines 
had  been  based  were  unreliable,  and  that 
all  were  simply  groping  in  the  dark.  Hav- 
ing set  out  with  absolute  faith  in  the  exist- 
ing scientific  data,  we  were  driven  to 
doubt  one  thing  after  another,  till  finally, 
after  two  years  of  experiment,  we  cast  it 
all  aside,  and  decided  to  rely  entirely  upon 
our  own  investigations.  Truth  and  error 
205 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

were  everywhere  so  intimately  mixed  as 
to  be  indistinguishable.  Nevertheless,  the 
time  expended  in  preliminary  study  of 
books  was  not  misspent,  for  they  gave  us 
a  good  general  understanding  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  enabled  us  at  the  outset  to  avoid 
effort  in  many  directions  in  which  results 
would  have  been  hopeless." 

"  To  work  intelligently,  one  needs  to 
know  the  effects  of  a  multitude  of  varia- 
tions that  would  be  incorporated  in  the 
surfaces  of  flying-machines.  The  pres- 
sures on  squares  are  different  from  those 
on  rectangles,  circles,  triangles,  or  ellipses; 
arched  surfaces  differ  from  planes,  and 
vary  among  themselves  according  to  the 
depth  of  curvature;  true  arcs  differ  from 
parabolas,  and  the  latter  differ  among 
themselves;  thick  surfaces  differ  from 
thin,  and  surfaces  thicker  in  one  place 
than  another  vary  in  pressure  when  the 
positions  of  maximum  thickness  are  dif- 
ferent; some  surfaces  are  more  efficient 
at  one  angle,  others  at  other  angles.  The 
shape  of  the  edge  also  makes  a  difference, 
206 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

so  that  thousands  of  combinations  are 
possible  in  so  simple  a  thing  as  a  wing." 

"  We  had  taken  aeronautics  merely  as 
a  sport.  We  reluctantly  entered  upon  the 
scientific  side  of  it.  But  we  soon  found 
the  work  so  fascinating  that  we  were 
drawn  into  it  deeper  and  deeper.  Two 
testing  machines  were  built,  which  we  be- 
lieved would  avoid  the  errors  to  which  the 
measurements  of  others  had  been  subject, 
after  making  preliminary  measurements 
on  a  great  number  of  different-shaped  sur- 
faces, so  varied  in  design  as  to  bring  out 
the  underlying  causes  of  difference  noted 
in  their  pressure.  Measurements  were 
tabulated  on  nearly  fifty  of  these  at  all 
angles  from  zero  to  45  degrees. 

"  In  September  and  October,  1902, 
nearly  one  thousand  flights  were  made, 
several  of  which  covered  distances  of  over 
600  feet.  Some,  made  against  a  wind  of 
thirty-six  miles  an  hour,  gave  proof  of  the 
effectiveness  of  the  devices  for  control. 
With  this  machine,  in  the  autumn  of  1903, 
we  made  a  number  of  flights  in  which  we 
209 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

remained  in  the  air  for  over  a  minute, 
after  soaring  for  a  considerable  time  in 
one  spot,  without  any  descent  at  all.  Lit- 
tle wonder  that  our  unscientific  assistant 
should  think  the  only  thing  needed  to  keep 
it  indefinitely  in  the  air  would  be  a  coat 
of  feathers  to  make  it  light." 

"  With  accurate  data  for  making  calcu- 
lations, and  a  system  of  balance  effective 
in  winds  as  well  as  in  calms,  we  were  now 
in  a  position,  we  thought,  to  build  a  suc- 
cessful power-flyer.  The  first  designs 
proved  for  a  total  weight  of  600  pounds, 
including  the  operator  and  an  eight  horse- 
power motor.  But,  upon  completion,  the 
motor  gave  more  power  than  had  been  es- 
timated, and  this  allowed  150  pounds  to 
be  added  for  strengthening  the  wings  and 
other  parts. 

"  It  was  not  till  several  months  had 
passed,  and  every  phase  of  the  problem 
had  been  thrashed  over  and  over,  that  the 
various  reactions  began  to  untangle  them- 
selves. When  once  a  clear  understanding 
had  been  obtained,  there  was  no  difficulty 
210 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

in  designing  suitable  propellers,  with 
proper  diameter,  pitch,  and  area  of  blade, 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  flyer. 
High  efficiency  in  a  screw  propeller  is  not 
dependent  upon  any  particular  or  peculiar 
shape,  and  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
'  best '  screw.  A  propeller  giving  a  high 
dynamic  efficiency  when  used  upon  one 
machine,  may  be  almost  worthless  when 
used  upon  another.  The  propeller  should 
in  every  case  be  designed  to  meet  the  par- 
ticular conditions  of  the  machine  to  which 
it  is  to  be  applied.  Our  first  propellers, 
built  entirely  from  calculation,  gave  in 
useful  work  66  per  cent  of  the  power  ex- 
pended. This  was  about  one  third  more 
than  had  been  secured  by  Maxim  and 
Langley." 

"  The  first  flights  with  the  power- 
machine  were  made  on  the  I7th  of  De- 
cember, 1903.  The  first  flight  lasted  only 
twelve  seconds,  a  flight  very  modest  com- 
pared with  that  of  birds,  but  it  was,  never- 
theless, the  first  in  the  history  of  the 
world  in  which  a  machine  carrying  a  man 
211 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

had  raised  itself  by  its  own  power  into 
the  air  in  free  flight,  had  sailed  forward 
on  a  level  course  without  reduction  of 
speed,  and  had  finally  landed  without  be- 
ing wrecked.  The  second  and  third 
flights  were  a  little  longer,  and  the  fourth 
lasted  fifty-nine  seconds,  covering  a  dis- 
tance of  853  feet  over  the  ground  against 
a  twenty-mile  wind." 

"  After  the  last  flight,  the  machine  was 
carried  back  to  camp  and  set  down  in  what 
was  thought  to  be  a  safe  place.  But  a  few 
minutes  later,  when  engaged  in  conversa- 
tion about  the  flights,  a  sudden  gust  of 
wind  struck  the  machine,  and  started  to 
turn  it  over.  All  made  a  rush  to  stop  it, 
but  we  were  too  late.  Mr.  Daniels,  a  giant 
in  stature  and  strength,  was  lifted  off  his 
feet,  and  falling  inside,  between  the  sur- 
faces, was  shaken  about  like  a  rattle  in  a 
box  -as  the  machine  rolled  over  and  over. 
He  finally  fell  out  upon  the  sand  with 
nothing  worse  than  painful  bruises,  but 
the  damage  to  the  machine  caused  a  dis- 
continuance of  experiments. 
212 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

"  In  the  spring  of  1904,  through  the 
kindness  of  Mr.  Torrence  Huffman  of 
Dayton,  Ohio,  we  were  permitted  to  erect 
a  shed,  and  to  continue  experiments,  on 
what  is  known  as  the  Huffman  Prairie,  at 
Simms  Station,  eight  miles  east  of  Day- 
ton. The  new  machine  was  heavier  and 
stronger,  but  similar  to  the  one  flown  at 
Kitty  Hawk.  When  preparations  had 
been  completed,  a  wind  of  three  or  four 
miles  was  blowing,  —  insufficient  for 
starting  on  so  short  a  track,  —  but  since 
many  had  come  a  long  way  to  see  the 
machine  in  action  an  attempt  was  made. 
To  add  to  the  other  difficulty,  the  engine 
refused  to  work  properly.  The  machine, 
after  running  the  length  of  the  track,  slid 
off  the  end  without  rising  in  the  air  at  all. 
Several  of  the  newspaper  men  returned  the 
next  day,  but  were  again  disappointed. 
The  engine  performed  badly,  and  after  a 
glide  of  only  sixty  feet,  the  machine  came 
to  the  ground.  Further  trial  was  post- 
poned till  the  motor  could  be  put  in  better 
running  condition. 

215 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

"We  had  not  been  flying  long  in  1904 
before  we  found  that  the  problem  of  equi- 
librium had  not  as  yet  been  entirely  solved. 
Sometimes,  in  making  a  circle,  the  ma- 
chine would  turn  over  sidewise  despite 
anything  the  operator  could  do,  although, 
under  the  same  conditions  in  ordinary 
flight,  it  could  have  been  righted  in  an 
instant.  In  one  flight,  in  1905,  while  cir- 
cling about  a  honey-locust  tree  at  a  height 
of  about  fifty  feet,  the  machine  suddenly 
began  to  turn  up  on  one  wing,  and  took 
a  course  toward  the  tree.  The  operator, 
not  relishing  the  idea  of  landing  in  a  thorn 
tree,  attempted  to  reach  the  ground.  The 
left  wing,  however,  struck  the  tree  at  a 
height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  carried  away  several 
branches;  but  the  flight,  which  had  cov- 
ered a  distance  of  six  miles,  was  continued 
to  the  starting  point. 

"  The  causes  of  these  troubles  —  too 
technical  for  explanation  here  —  were  not 
entirely  overcome  till  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber, 1905.  The  flights  then  rapidly  in- 
216 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

creased  in  length,   till  experiments  were 
discontinued  after  the  5th  of  October. 

"  A  practical  flyer  having  been  finally 
realized,  we  spent  the  years  1906  and  1907 
in  constructing  new  machines  and  in  busi- 
ness negotiations.  It  was  not  till  May  of 
this  year  (1908)  that  experiments  were 
resumed  at  Kill  Devil  Hill,  North  Caro- 
lina. The  recent  flights  were  made  to  test 
the  ability  of  our  machines  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  a  contract  with  the  United 
States  Government  to  furnish  a  flier  capa- 
ble of  carrying  two  men  and  sufficient 
fuel  supplies  for  a  flight  of  125  miles,  with 
a  speed  of  forty  miles  an  hour.  The  ma- 
chine used  in  these  tests  was  the  one  with 
which  the  flights  were  made  at  Simms 
Station  in  1905,  though  several  changes 
had  been  made  to  meet  present  require- 
ments. The  operator  assumed  a  sitting 
position,  instead  of  lying  prone,  as  in  1905, 
and  a  seat  was  added  for  a  passenger.  A 
larger  motor  was  installed,  and  radiators 
and  gasolene  reservoirs  of  larger  capacity 
replaced  those  previously  used." 
217 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

Let  us  now  take  a  short  air  journey  with 
one  of  the  Wright  Brothers  as  pilot.  He 
describes  the  experience  as  follows,  "  Let 
us  fancy  ourselves  ready  for  the  start. 
The  machine  is  placed  on  a  single  rail 
track  facing  the  wind  and  is  securely 
fastened  with  a  cable.  The  engine  is  put 
in  motion,  and  the  propellers  in  the  rear 
whirr.  You  take  your  seat  at  the  center 
of  the  machine  beside  the  operator.  He 
slips  the  cable,  and  you  shoot  forward. 
An  assistant  who  has  been  holding  the 
machine  in  balance  on  the  rail,  starts  for- 
ward with  you,  but  before  you  have  gone 
fifty  feet  the  speed  is  too  great  for  him, 
and  he  lets  go.  Before  reaching  the  end 
of  the  track  the  operator  moves  the  front 
rudder,  and  the  machine  lifts  from  the  rail 
like  a  kite  supported  by  the  pressure  of 
the  air  underneath.  The  ground  under 
you  is  at  first  a  perfect  blur,  but  as  you 
rise  the  objects  become  clearer.  At  a 
height  of  one  hundred  feet  you  feel  hardly 
any  motion  at  all,  except  for  the  wind 
which  strikes  your  face.  If  you  did  not 
218 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

take  the  precaution  to  fasten  your  hat 
before  starting,  you  have  probably  lost  it 
by  this  time.  The  operator  moves  a  lever; 
the  right  wing  rises  and  the  machine 
swings  about  to  the  left.  You  make  a  very 
short  turn,  yet  you  do  not  feel  the  sensa- 
tion of  being  thrown  from  your  seat,  so 
often  experienced  in  automobile  and  rail- 
way travel.  You  find  yourself  facing 
toward  the  point  from  which  you  started. 
The  objects  on  the  ground  seem  to  be 
moving  at  much  higher  speed,  though  you 
perceive  no  change  in  the  pressure  of 
wind  in  your  face.  You  know  then  that 
you  are  traveling  with  the  wind.  When 
you  near  the  starting  point,  the  operator 
stops  the  motor  while  still  high  in  the  air. 
The  machine  coasts  down  at  an  oblique 
angle  to  the  ground,  and  after  sliding  fifty 
or  a  hundred  feet,  comes  to  rest.  Al- 
though the  machine  often  lands  when 
traveling  at  a  speed  of  a  mile  a  minute,  you 
feel  no  shock  whatever,  and  cannot  in  fact, 
tell  the  exact  moment  at  which  it  first 
touched  the  ground.  The  motor  close  be- 
221 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

side  you  kept  up  an  almost  deafening  roar 
during  the  whole  flight,  yet  in  your  excite- 
ment, you  did  not  notice  it  till  it  stopped." 

On  his  return  from  Le  Mans  Mr.  Wilbur 
Wright  estimated  that  during  a  single 
year  he  had  flown  upwards  of  3000  miles. 
With  the  memory  of  these  marvellous 
flights  in  his  mind  he  described  his  sensa- 
tions to  the  present  writer  with  enthu- 
siasm. 

"  Flying  is  the  greatest  sport  in  the 
world,"  says  Mr.  Wilbur  Wright.  "I 
can't  describe  the  sensation,  I  can  only 
define  it  by  comparison  with  more  familiar 
experiences.  It  is  like  sledding,  like  mo- 
toring, like  sailing,  but  with  increased  ex- 
hilaration and  freedom. 

"An  aeroplane  flight,  contrary  to  the 
general  impression,  is  far  steadier  than  the 
familiar  means  of  locomotion.  There  is 
absolute  freedom  from  the  bouncing  of  the 
automobile,  the  jar  of  a  railroad  train,  or 
the  rolling  and  pitching  sensations  of  the 
sea.  No  matter  how  many  springs  or 
cushions  may  be  added  to  the  automobile, 
222 


THE  WRIGHT  BROTHERS'  STORY 

for  instance,  there  will  always  be  some 
motion.  On  the  other  hand,  the  seat  of 
an  aeroplane  is  always  steady.  The 
aeroplane  does  not  jolt  over  the  invisible 
wind  currents,  the  ruts  of  the  sky.  It  cuts 
its  way  smoothly.  Even  suppose  the 
plane  to  be  gliding  so  (indicating  an  angle 
of  forty-five  degrees),  the  seat  remains 
fixed.  There  is,  of  course,  no  absolute 
parallel  in  surface  travel.  And  since  there 
is  no  roll  or  pitch  to  the  aeroplane,  there 
is  no  air-sickness  comparable  to  the  famil- 
iar sea  sickness." 


223 


CHAPTER   IV 

ABOARD   THE   WRIGHTS*   AIRSHIP 

SEEN  high  aloft  the  Wright  aeroplane 
appears  so  graceful  and  fragile  that  its 
actual  dimensions  come  as  a  surprise.  In 
the  upper  air  it  seems  no  larger  than  a 
swallow,  but,  as  it  settles  to  earth,  the 
wings  lengthen  out  to  the  width  of  an 
ordinary  street. 

There  is  some  good  reason  for  each  stick 
and  wire,  and  for  every  twist  and  turn  of 
the  Wrights'  marvellous  airship.  When 
one  considers  what  wonderful  feats  this 
aircraft  performs,  its  form  and  mechanism 
seem  extremely  simple.  It  is  far  less  com- 
plicated than  any  locomotive  or  steamship, 
and  the  action  of  its  planes  is  far  easier  to 
explain  than  the  sails  of  an  ordinary  sea- 
going ship.  When  one  has  once  gone  over 
the  fascinating  little  craft,  all  other  aero- 
224 


v 


ABOARD  THE  WRIGHTS'  AIRSHIP 

planes,  which  more  or  less  resemble  it,  may 
be  readily  understood. 

The  Wright  machine  was  not  only  the 
first  power  airship  to  fly  and  carry  a  man 
aloft,  but  for  all  its  rivals,  it  still  rides  the 
unstable  air  currents  more  steadily  than 
any  other.  The  planes  measure  forty  feet 
from  tip  to  tip,  six  and  a  half  feet  across, 
and  are  spaced  six  feet  apart.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  planes  is  very  important 
and  was  only  fixed  after  a  number  of  ex- 
periments. The  area  of  the  wings  or  sup- 
porting surfaces  is  540  feet,  which  is  con- 
siderably more  than  in  most  airships. 
The  machine  complete,  without  any  pas- 
senger or  pilot,  weighs  880  pounds,  al- 
though you  would  imagine  it  to  be  much 
less.  The  two  propellers  measure  eight 
feet  in  diameter,  and  turn  at  the  rate  of 
450  revolutions  a  minute.  Equipped  with 
a  four  cylinder  engine  of  from  25  to  30 
horse  power,  the  airship  has  a  speed  of 
forty  miles  an  hour,  which  is  often  in- 
creased when  traveling  with  the  wind. 

The  seats  for  the  pilot  and  the  passen- 
227 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

ger  are  placed  at  the  center  at  the  front  of 
the  lower  plane,  so  that  their  feet  hang 
over  the  front  or  entering  edge.  The 
passenger  sits  very  comfortably  through- 
out the  flight.  There  is  a  back  to  lean 
against,  a  brace  for  the  feet,  while  the 
struts  between  the  planes  give  every  op- 
portunity to  hold  on.  In  some  of  the 
models  these  seats  are  even  upholstered  in 
gray  to  harmonize  with  the  silver  or  alu- 
minium paint  of  the  machine. 

A  second  and  smaller  biplane,  which 
serves  both  as  rudder  and  lifting  plane, 
extends  about  ten  feet  in  front  of  the  main 
planes.  These  two  planes,  which  have  a 
combined  area  of  eighty  square  feet,  may 
be  inclined  upward  or  downward  by  touch- 
ing a  lever  at  the  pilot's  seat.  The  motor, 
radiator  and  petrol  or  fuel  tank  are  placed 
on  the  lower  plane  in  the  center  of  the 
machine  so  that  they  balance  the  weight 
of  the  pilot  and  the  passenger.  The 
weight  of  the  lifting  planes  and  rudders 
rests  on  the  main  planes  or  lower  deck. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  the 
228 


ABOARD  THE  WRIGHTS'  AIRSHIP 

Wrights'  airship  is,  of  course,  the  method 
for  flexing  the  tips  of  the  wings  or  planes 
to  imitate  the  flight  of  the  birds.  The  ends 
of  the  large  planes  are  made  slightly  flex- 
ible, and  may  be  turned  up  or  down  by 
moving  a  lever  placed  convenient  to  the 
pilot's  hand.  Both  planes  are  flexed,  or 
turned  up  or  down,  at  the  same  time  the 
vertical  rudder  moves,  so  that,  when  the 
aeroplane  turns  to  right  or  left,  the  wings 
give  the  machine  the  proper  balance.  If 
it  were  not  for  this  arrangement,  the  ends 
of  the  planes  in  turning  would  tend  to 
rise,  since  they  travel  the  faster,  and  the 
machine  would  be  in  danger  of  upsetting. 
The  ends  of  the  planes  may  also  be  flexed 
separately  when  the  machine  is  in  straight 
flight,  whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to 
balance  it  against  a  dangerous  air  current 
or  a  gust  of  wind.  The  pilot,  it  will  be 
seen,  has  every  point  of  the  great  machine, 
as  it  were,  at  his  finger  ends. 

The   marvellous    power   placed   in   the 
hands  of  the  pilot  of  one  of  these  models 
makes  him  almost  equal  of  the  birds  soar- 
231 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

ing  about  him.  Let  us  suppose  an  accident 
to  occur.  Even  should  the  engine  stop, 
the  skillful  pilot  is  still  master  of  the  situ- 
ation. He  can  actually  coast  down  to  the 
ground  on  the  air  with  comparative  safety. 
Mr.  Orville  Wright  has  soared  up  3000 
feet  and,  after  stopping  his  propeller,  slid 
down  on  nothing  at  all,  at  the  rate  of  more 
than  twenty  miles  an  hour,  by  the  force 
of  gravity  alone. 

The  Wright  method  of  alighting  is  also 
borrowed  from  the  birds.  Watch  any  bird 
alight  on  a  twig,  and  you  will  see  that  it 
always  settles  on  the  top  of  the  twig,  which 
is  pressed  straight  down  by  its  weight, 
and  never  sideways.  As  the  Wrights 
come  down,  they  approach  to  within  a 
few  feet  of  the  earth,  but,  without  touch- 
ing they  swoop  up  again,  and  finally  settle 
down  from  a  height  of  only  a  few  feet. 
Considering  the  weight  of  their  machine, 
they  actually  come  down  as  lightly  as  a 
bird.  While  traveling  at  a  speed  of  forty 
miles  an  hour  they  will  skid  along  the 
ground  or  come  to  rest  within  five  or  six 
232 


ABOARD  THE  WRIGHTS'  AIRSHIP 

feet,  so  quietly  that  a  passenger  cannot 
tell  when  he  lands. 

No  part  of  the  aeroplane  calls  for  more 
clever  workmanship  than  the  wings  or 
planes.  They  must  be  so  thin  and  light 
that  they  will  ride  the  air  like  the  wings 
of  a  bird,  and  yet  strong  enough  to  sup- 
port the  weight  of  hundreds  of  pounds  of 
machinery  and  of  passengers.  In  the 
Wright  model,  the  planes  are  made  en- 
tirely of  wood,  but  so  ingeniously  braced 
that  they  are  perfectly  rigid.  The  build- 
ing of  such  a  wing  is  especially  difficult, 
since  it  must  be  curved  with  scientific  ac- 
curacy. In  the  Wright  model  machines, 
as  in  all  aeroplanes,  the  curve  is  upward, 
with  the  highest  point  of  the  arch  near 
the  front  or  entering  edge. 

Both  sides  of  the  frame  are  completely 
covered  so  that  they  may  offer  the  least 
possible  amount  of  resistance.  There  is 
not  a  ridge,  scarcely  a  seam,  to  catch  the 
air.  A  stout  canvas  is  used  for  covering. 
The  ingenuity  of  these  clever  workmen 
led  them  to  lay  on  the  cloth  with  the 
233 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

thread  running  diagonally,  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees.  This  plan  serves  to 
hold  the  frame  more  closely  together  and 
keeps  the  cloth  from  bagging  or  wrinkling. 
At  the  first  glance,  the  Wright  machine 
appears  to  be  made  entirely  of  aluminium. 
Seen  high  aloft  in  the  sunlight,  it  appears 
like  some  delicate  jewel.  The  effect  is  due 
to  the  paint.  The  entire  framework  of 
the  machine  is  made  of  spruce  pine  ex- 
cept the  curved  part  of  the  wings,  or 
entering  edge,  which  is  of  ash.  The  pro- 
pellers are  driven  by  chains,  connected 
with  the  motor,  which  run  in  steel  tubes, 
thus  doing  away  with  the  danger  of  foul- 
ing by  passengers  or  loose  objects.  The 
ignition  system  is  operated  by  a  high  ten- 
sion Eisenmann  magneto  machine.  The 
petrol  used  for  fuel  is  carried  in  a  tank 
placed  above  the  engines  and  is  supplied 
by  gravity.  The  two  wings  are  connected 
by  a  series  of  distance  rods  and  wire 
cross-stays,  which  keep  the  entire  front, 
or  entering  edge,  and  central  part  of  the 
model,  perfectly  rigid. 
234 


ABOARD  THE  WRIGHTS'  AIRSHIP 

Although  nearly  all  the  aeroplanes, 
nowadays,  are  mounted  on  ordinary  bicy- 
cle wheels,  the  Wrights  prefer  a  simple 
system  of  skids,  not  unlike  the  runners 
of  a  sleigh.  One  of  the  great  advantages 
of  the  skids  is  the  fact  that  they  take  up 
the  shock  on  landing  more  completely  than 
wheels  and  protect  the  machine  from 
many  a  hard  bump. 

The  airship  rests  on  a  small  frame 
mounted  on  two  wheels,  placed  tandem, 
and  is  balanced  on  a  small  trolley  which 
runs  along  a  rail  about  twenty-five  feet  in 
length.  It  is  started  by  the  pull  of  a  rope 
attached  to  a  1500  pound  weight,  which 
drops  from  a  derrick  fifteen  feet  in  height. 
When  everything  is  ready,  the  temporary 
wheels  are  taken  away,  the  rope  is  at- 
tached, and  finally  the  weight  released. 
The  machine  glides  swiftly  down  the 
track,  and  when  the  necessary  speed  has 
been  reached,  the  pilot  raises  his  elevating 
planes,  a  trifle,  and  the  ship  glides  grace- 
fully upward  and  onward. 


237 


CHAPTER    V 

OTHER   AEROPLANES   APPEAR 

IN  the  summer  of  1904  the  boys  of  Paris 
were  greatly  interested  in  watching  a 
curious,  giant  kite  in  flight  over  the  River 
Seine.  The  string  of  this  kite  was  drawn 
by  a  fast  motor  boat,  which  darted  along, 
while  the  kite  rose  high  in  the  air.  Its 
inventor  tinkered  with  it,  and  changed  its 
wings  about  until  it  finally  flew  like  no 
other  kite  ever  seen  in  France.  All  this 
was  by  no  means  mere  play,  however,  for 
many  scientists  watched  the  kite  as  it 
soared  about  and  a  great  deal  of  valuable 
information  about  the  behavior  of  kites 
of  this  shape  was  learned.  The  man  with 
the  kite,  who  soon  became  famous  in  the 
world  of  aviation,  was  named  Voisin.  The 
aeroplane,  which  he  afterwards  built, 
modeled  on  this  kite,  was  flown  in  many 
238 


OTHER  AEROPLANES  APPEAR 

remarkable  flights  by  Henry  Farman, 
Delagrange,  Paulhan,  and  others.  Like 
the  Wright  airship,  Voisin's  is  a  biplane 
or  double  plane  model. 

Although  at  first  glance,  the  Voisin  and 
Wright  aeroplanes  may  seem  very  much 
alike,  as  we  look  more  closely,  we  will  find 
many  points  of  contrast.  The  Voisin 
model  has  a  large  tail-piece,  consisting  of 
two  vertical  planes,  which  project  far  be- 
hind. These  planes  are  believed  to  make 
its  flight  very  steady.  A  single  vertical 
rudder  is  placed  between  the  two  rear 
edges  of  this  plane.  The  rudders  are 
turned  by  horizontal,  sliding  bars  attached 
to  the  wheels,  directly  before  the  pilot's 
seat,  like  an  automobile.  The  horizontal 
rudder  in  front,  which  corresponds  to  the 
Wrights'  double  lifting  plane,  is  single  and 
is  placed  lower  down  than  in  the  Wright 
model. 

The  steadiness  of  the  Voisin  aeroplane 

in   flight   is   gained   without    flexing   the 

planes.     A  series  of  four  vertical  planes 

connect  the  upper  and  lower  wings  which 

239 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

give  the  machine  much  the  appearance  of 
a  box  kite.  These  walls  are  arranged  so 
that  the  space  enclosed  at  either  end  is 
almost  square.  It  is  believed  that  the 
arrangement  of  these  walls  keeps  the  air 
from  sliding  off  the  under  surface  of  the 
horizontal  planes,  and  thus  greater  lifting 
power  is  obtained.  It  is  claimed  that  the 
model  has  much  greater  longitudinal  sta- 
bility than  the  Wrights'  machine.  In 
other  words,  the  long  tail  piece  prevents 
the  machine  from  tipping  or  pitching 
when  the  wind  gusts  come  unevenly.  The 
box-like  or  cellular  form,  it  is  believed 
also,  adds  to  its  stability.  The  model 
holds  the  record  for  flying  at  the  lowest 
speed  —  22.8  miles  an  hour.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Voisin  model  cannot,  with  any 
degree  of  safety,  coast  down  on  the  air 
from  great  altitudes,  like  the  Wright 
model. 

The  method  of  starting  the  Voisin  air- 
ship    is     entirely     different     from     the 
Wrights'.     The  machine   is   mounted   on 
two  wheels,  attached  to  the  girder  body 
240 


OTHER  AEROPLANES  APPEAR 

with  an  arrangement  of  springs  to  take 
up  the  shock  on  landing.  To  launch  the 
aeroplane,  the  propellers  are  started,  and 
the  machine  rushes  forward  on  its  wheels 
until  it  has  developed  sufficient  speed  to 
send  it  up.  It  may  thus  rise  from  an  or- 
dinarily level  ground,  and  does  not  require 
the  apparatus  used  by  the  Wrights.  The 
pilot  and  passenger  sit  in  much  the  same 
position  as  in  the  Wright  aeroplane. 

The  Voisin  model  weighs  300  pounds 
more  than  the  Wrights'  or  1590  pounds. 
It  has  a  supporting  surface  of  535  square 
feet,  and  a  speed,  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, of  38  miles  an  hour.  Another  point 
of  difference  from  the  Wright  model  is  the 
propeller,  which  is  single  and  measures 
seven  feet  six  inches  in  diameter.  The 
motor,  an  eight  cylinder  Antoinette,  usu- 
ally gives  fifty  horse  power  at  noo  revo- 
lutions per  minute.  The  Wright  Broth- 
ers, by  the  way,  make  their  own  motors, 
which  are  considered  inferior  to  the 
French  motors. 

The  smallest  and  swiftest  of  all  the 
241 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

aeroplanes  is  the  Curtiss-Herring  model, 
which  was  invented  by  two  Americans 
whose  names  it  bears.  Its  general  form 
suggests  the  Wrights'  machine.  The  span 
of  the  large  planes  is  only  29  feet  or  under, 
the  depth  but  four  feet  six  inches,  and  the 
spacing  four  feet  six  inches.  It  has  a  total 
wing  surface  of  but  258  square  feet.  The 
weight,  not  including  the  pilot,  is  only 
about  450  pounds.  When  seen  beside  the 
aeroplane  of  ordinary  size,  the  little  craft 
looks  like  a  very  large  toy  model.  It  has 
the  appearance  of  a  smart  little  racer,  how- 
ever, and  its  maximum  speed  is  over  50 
miles  an  hour. 

Everything  has  been  sacrificed  in  the 
Curtiss-Herring  model  for  the  sake  of 
compactness.  The  forward  rudder,  which 
seems  small  even  for  such  a  craft,  consists 
of  two  planes,  one  above  the  other,  whose 
combined  area  is  only  twenty-four  square 
feet.  Unlike  the  Wright  or  Voisin  models, 
this  forward  rudder  carries  a  vertical  plane 
which  makes  for  stability.  There  is  no 
tail  as  in  the  Voisin  model,  and  the  rear, 
242 


OTHER  AEROPLANES  APPEAR 

vertical  rudder  consists  of  a  horizontal 
plane  six  feet  wide  and  two  feet,  three 
inches  deep  and  a  vertical  rudder  below  it, 
two  feet  deep  and  three  feet  four  inches 
wide.  The  front  and  rear  planes  extend 
out  from  the  main  frame  about  the  same 
distance.  The  main  stability  planes,  curi- 
ously enough,  are  placed  inside  the  frame. 
There  are  two  of  these,  one  at  either  end 
of  the  main  plane. 

An  ingenious  method  has  been  followed 
to  control  the  various  planes.  The  pilot 
sits  facing  a  wheel,  like  that  of  an  auto- 
mobile, which  is  so  rigged  that  by  simply 
pushing  it  from  him  or  pulling  it  back, 
he  may  lift  or  decline  the  front  planes.  By 
turning  this  wheel  he  operates  the  rudder 
in  the  rear,  exactly  as  you  would  steer  an 
automobile  or  a  boat.  The  balancing 
mechanism  in  turn  is  connected  with  a 
frame  which  fits  about  the  pilot's  shoul- 
ders like  a  high-backed  chair  and  is  oper- 
ated by  merely  leaning  to  one  side  or  the 
other.  This  has  the  same  effect  as  warp- 
ing the  main  planes.  The  control  of  the 
243 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

machine  becomes  largely  automatic.  If 
the  pilot  feels  that  his  aeroplane  is  tilting 
over  at  one  end  or  the  other,  he  merely 
leans  to  one  side  or  the  other,  and,  with- 
out taking  his  hands  from  the  wheel  before 
him,  has  the  machine  under  perfect  con- 
trol. Even  the  motor  is  controlled  by 
pedals  placed  under  the  pilot's  feet. 

This  little  racer  is  mounted  on  three 
wheels,  one  well  forward  and  two  in  the 
rear  about  half  way  between  the  main 
planes  and  the  horizontal  rudder.  An 
original  feature  of  this  model  is  a  foot 
brake  which,  connecting  with  the  forward 
wheel,  helps  to  slow  down  the  machine 
on  landing,  just  as  you  close  the  brake  of 
an  automobile.  There  is  only  one  rudder 
measuring  six  feet  in  diameter,  which  is 
unusually  large  considering  the  size  of  the 
model.  The  engine  is  mounted  at  the  cen- 
ter of  the  space  between  the  two  main 
planes,  and  the  propeller,  which  is  kept  on 
a  line  with  it,  is  therefore  considerably 
higher  than  in  most  aeroplanes.  The 
lower  plane  comes  very  near  the  ground. 
244 


OTHER  AEROPLANES  APPEAR 

It  is  only  raised  by  about  the  height  of  the 
bicycle  wheels.  It  is  thought  by  some  that 
this  arrangement  of  the  engine  blankets 
the  propeller,  while  others  argue  that  the 
suction  produced  in  this  way  increases  the 
thrust  of  the  propeller.  The  machine  is 
built  of  Oregon  spruce,  the  wings  are 
covered  with  oiled  rubber  silk,  and  the  en- 
tire mechanism  is  beautifully  finished  in 
every  detail. 

The  ingenuity  of  the  designers  of  aero- 
planes is  astonishing.  With  so  many  aero- 
planes in  the  field,  or  rather  in  the  sky,  it 
is  surprising  that,  they  are  not  more  alike. 
The  Farman  biplane,  for  instance,  follows 
the  same  general  proportion  as  the  Wright 
machine,  but  there  the  similarity  ends. 
To  secure  equilibrium  in  this  model,  four 
small  planes  are  used,  hinged  at  the  back 
of  the  two  main  planes,  and  these,  it  has 
been  found,  take  the  place  of  the  flexing 
device  used  by  the  Wrights.  The  two 
swinging  planes  on  the  lower  wing  are 
controlled  by  wires,  while  the  upper  two 
swing  free.  A  single  lever  controls  the 
247 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

iv/o  lower  planes  and  the  horizontal  rud- 
der. 

Farman  has  placed  his  rear  stability 
planes  unusually  far  behind  the  main 
frame.  They  consist  of  two  fixed  horizon- 
tal planes,  one  above  the  other,  with  a  ver- 
tical rudder  placed  in  the  space  between 
them.  The  front  horizontal  rudder  for 
vertical  steering,  is  a  single  plane, 
mounted  close  to  the  entering  edge.  The 
vertical  rudder  is  worked  by  a  foot  pedal. 
The  machine  is  driven  by  one  large 
wooden  propeller,  eight  feet  six  inches  in 
diameter,  at  a  speed  of  1300  revolutions 
per  minute,  which,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  un- 
usually high.  The  Farman  biplane  is  one 
of  the  heaviest  yet  constructed,  weighing 
about  1000  pounds  without  the  pilot. 

An  original  plan  has  also  been  found  for 
mounting  the  machine.  The  aeroplane 
rests  upon  a  combination  of  skids  and 
wheels.  There  are  two  sets  of  wheels 
under  the  front  edge  of  the  plane,  while 
the  two  skids  are  placed  between  the 
wheels  of  each  pair.  The  motor  is  four 
248 


OTHER  AEROPLANES  APPEAR 

cylinder,  fifty  horse  power  type,  and  drives 
the  machine  at  the  rate  of  forty  miles  an 
hour. 

The  largest,  and  by  far  the  heaviest 
aeroplane  is  the  Cody  biplane  built  by  an 
American  inventor  who  lives  in  England. 
It  weighs  nearly  one  ton,  or  more  than 
1800  pounds,  to  be  exact,  and  measures 
fifty-two  feet  across.  The  machine  is  bal- 
anced somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the 
Curtiss-Herring  model,  by  two  horizontal 
planes  placed  at  the  extremities  of  the 
main  planes  and  midway  between  the  rear 
corners.  The  two  main  planes  are  seven 
feet  six  inches  wide  and  are  placed  nine 
feet  apart,  which  is  considerably  farther 
than  in  any  other  successful  model.  The 
upper  plane  is  slightly  curved  toward  the 
ends.  The  machine  carries  two  large  hor- 
izontal planes  for  vertical  steering,  sixteen 
feet  before  the  entering  edge  of  the  main 
wings.  These  planes,  placed  side  by  side, 
have  a  combined  area  of  150  square  feet 
and  naturally  exert  a  considerable  lifting 
force.  A  small  vertical  rudder  for  horizon- 
249 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

tal  steering  is  carried  above  and  between 
these  front  planes.  An  unusually  large 
rudder  is  placed  well  behind  the  machine, 
consisting  of  a  vertical  plane  with  an  area 
of  forty  square  feet.  All  the  rudders  are 
operated  by  a  wheel  in  front  of  the  pilot's 
seat. 

In  the  Cody  aeroplane  the  horizontal 
rudders  are  moved  by  pushing  or  pulling 
the  wheel,  while  by  moving  it  sideways  the 
two  balancing  planes,  which  control  the 
equilibrium,  are  moved  up  and  down.  The 
most  original  feature  of  the  Cody 
machine  is  the  position  of  the  propellers. 
They  are  carried  in  the  space  between  the 
two  main  planes  forward  of  the  center.  It 
would  seem  that  they  must  draw  the  air 
from  the  upper  planes  and  affect  their  lift- 
ing quality.  The  machine  is  mounted  on 
three  wheels,  two  beneath  the  front  edge 
of  the  main  plane,  and  the  other  slightly 
forward,  which  is  an  unusual  distribution. 
The  Cody  biplane,  with  770  feet  of  wing 
surface,  lifts  more  than  1800  pounds. 

It  is  all  a  matter  of  guess  work,  of 
250 


OTHER  AEROPLANES  APPEAR 

course,  whether  the  monoplane,  biplane, 
or  some  entirely  new  form  of  aeroplane 
will  come  into  general  use.  Every  model 
has  its  enthusiastic  friends.  The  biplane, 
at  present,  has  greater  stability  than  the 
monoplane,  and  carries  greater  weights 
for  longer  distances.  The  development  of 
the  flying  machine  is  so  rapid  however  that 
in  five  or  ten  years  the  successful  aeroplane 
models  of  to-day  may  appear  as  crude  as 
do  the  clumsy,  lumbering  old  horseless 
carriages  of  five  or  ten  years  ago. 


253 


CHAPTER   VI 

SUCCESSFUL   MONOPLANES 

WHILE  the  biplane  borrows  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  flight  from  the 
birds,  the  monoplane  carries  us  a  step 
further  and  almost  exactly  reproduces 
their  form  and  movement.  Seen  high 
aloft,  with  wings  outspread,  the  mono- 
planes look  like  great  eagles  as,  gracefully, 
but  very  noisily,  they  rise  and  fall  in  long, 
sweeping  curves.  The  monoplane  being  a 
much  lighter  machine  and  less  complicated 
is  therefore  cheaper  to  build  than  any  mul- 
tiplane model.  Several  of  the  successful 
models  ride  the  air  very  steadily  and  have 
proven  themselves  capable  of  making  long 
and  difficult  air  journeys. 

Some  aviators  believe  that  the  mono- 
plane type,  highly  developed,  to  be  sure, 
will  some  day  be  adopted  for  great  com- 
254 


SUCCESSFUL   MONOPLANES 

mercial  airships.  Even  in  its  present  form, 
these  mechanical  birds  look  very  ship- 
shape. The  pilot  can  find  a  more  comfort- 
able seat  among  these  wings  than  in  the 
biplane  forms,  and  it  takes  little  imagina- 
tion to  picture  these  airships,  greatly  en- 
larged, carrying  comfortable  cabins  filled 
with  air  voyagers.  The  most  successful 
model  aeroplanes,  by  the  way,  are  of  the 
monoplane  form. 

The  first  monoplane  to  make  an  ex- 
tended flight  was  the  Bleriot.  Its  in- 
ventor had  worked  with  Voisin  in  the 
experiments  above  the  River  Seine  at  Paris 
in  1906,  and  beginning  with  short  flights 
of  only  a  few  yards  worked  his  way  step 
by  step.  The  machine  in  which  he  crossed 
the  English  Channel  in  1909,  and  made 
several  remarkable  cross  country  flights, 
was  his  eleventh  model. 

Bleriot's  most  successful  model  consists 
of  only  two  wings  curved  upward, 
mounted  on  a  long  motor  base  which 
measures  twenty-six  and  one  half  feet  in 
length.  The  body  of  the  monoplane, 
257 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

which  is  made  of  ash  and  poplar,  tapers  to 
a  point  in  the  rear  and  is  partially  cov- 
ered with  "  Continental  fabric,"  similar  to 
balloons.  The  front  or  main  wing  is 
twenty-five  and  a  half  feet  in  width  with 
a  surface  of  159  square  feet.  The  rear 
plane  measures  only  six  feet  in  width,  and 
three  feet  in  depth  and  is  equipped  with 
moveable  tips  or  horizontal  rudders  two 
feet  square  at  either  side.  The  vertical 
rudder  for  steering  to  right  or  left,  is  car- 
ried behind  the  frame.  The  planes  are 
braced  by  a  series  of  stay  wires  running 
in  all  directions. 

Unlike  the  biplane,  the  motor  of  the 
monoplane  is  placed  in  front  of  the  wings. 
The  blades  of  the  propeller,  which  are  un- 
usually broad,  measure  less  than  seven  feet 
from  tip  to  tip.  The  pilot's  seat  is  inside 
the  motor  frame  near  the  rear  edge  of  the 
main  wing,  and  with  its  high  back  and 
sides  appears  to  be  a  comfortable  place  to 
sit.  It  has  the  disadvantage,  however,  of 
being  directly  behind  the  motor,  so  that  a 
draft  of  air  strikes  the  driver  in  the  face. 
258 


SUCCESSFUL   MONOPLANES 

The  pilot  keeps  his  machine  on  an  even 
keel  by  flexing  the  tips  of  the  planes,  much 
the  same  as  in  the  Wright  model.  The 
tips  of  the  main  plane  and  of  the  two  hori- 
zontal rudders  are  connected  with  a  single 
lever,  which  gives  the  pilot  perfect  control 
of  them.  The  horizontal  rudders  may  be 
turned  to  steer  the  aeroplane  up  or  down 
in  the  same  way.  The  vertical  rudder  for 
turning  the  aeroplane  from  right  to  left, 
is  operated  by  a  foot  lever. 

The  Bleriot  monoplane  weighs  about 
500  pounds,  so  that  it  carries  about  four 
pounds  for  every  square  foot  of  wing  sur- 
face, or  thirteen  pounds  per  square  foot, 
which  is  from  two  to  four  times  greater 
than  is  the  case  of  any  biplane.  The 
machine  is  mounted  on  three  wheels,  two 
at  the  front  and  one  near  the  rear,  just  for- 
ward of  the  rudders.  It  has  a  speed  of 
nearly  forty  miles  an  hour. 

All  the  present  monoplane  models  fol- 
low the  same  general  plan  of  placing  their 
propellers  and  larger  planes  in  front  and 
their  horizontal  rudder  for  vertical  steer- 
259 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

ing  in  the  rear.  The  idea  is  gaining 
ground,  however,  that  it  would  be  better 
if  this  arrangement  was  reversed,  and  they 
flew  with  what  is  now  the  tail  in  front. 
The  theory  of  this  arrangement  is  that  if 
the  edge  of  the  lifting  planes  is  presented 
to  the  air,  they  would  answer  the  helm 
much  better,  as  has  been  proven  in  the 
biplane  forms.  The  experiment  of  revers- 
ing the  monoplane  forms  has  been  tried  in 
model  aeroplanes  with  great  success. 

The  heaviest  and  largest  of  the  mono- 
planes at  present  is  the  Antoinette  model, 
which  is  the  invention  of  M.  Levasseur. 
It  looks  like  a  great  dragon  fly,  and  has 
proven  itself  very  steady  in  flight.  The 
main  wings,  measuring  forty-two  feet  in 
width  seem  to  be  arched  unusually  high 
from  front  to  rear,  and  taper  rather 
sharply  at  the  ends.  Their  total  lifting 
surface  is  a  trifle  over  300  feet.  In  some 
of  the  Antoinette  models  the  wings  are  set 
in  the  form  of  a  broad,  dihedral  angle. 
The  monoplane  is  driven  from  a  seat  in 
the  body  of  the  frame  as  the  Bleriot  model, 
260 


SUCCESSFUL   MONOPLANES 

but  moved  slightly  farther  back.  The  rear 
horizontal  rudder  is  controlled  by  a  large 
wheel  at  the  left  of  the  pilot's  seat,  while 
a  corresponding  wheel  on  the  right  con- 
trols the  small  hinged  wings  at  the  outer 
edge  of  the  main  plane.  The  pilot  turns 
his  airship  from  right  to  left  by  merely 
pressing  two  foot  pedals  connected  with 
the  vertical  rudder  in  the  rear.  In  the  later 
models,  the  dihedral  angle  has  been  aban- 
doned and  the  front  planes  set  horizon- 
tally. 

The  most  novel  feature  of  the  An- 
toinette model  is  the  form  and  control  of 
the  rear  rudders  and  stability  planes.  The 
model  carries  two  vertical  rudders  for 
turning  the  craft  to  the  right  or  left,  and 
a  large  horizontal  rudder  for  vertical 
steering,  extending  far  out  behind  at  the 
end  of  the  main  body.  All  of  these  rudders 
are  triangular  in  shape,  tapering  to  a  point 
in  the  rear.  The  Antoinette  has  proved, 
it  is  believed,  that  the  corners  of  square 
rudders  may  be  removed,  without  affect- 
ing their  guiding  qualities,  thus  saving 
263 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

considerable  surface  and  weight.  It  would 
seem,  on  general  principles,  that  just  the 
reverse  would  be  the  case.  The  builder  of 
model  aeroplanes  may  take  a  leaf  from  the 
log  of  this  airship. 

The  Antoinette  stability  planes  are 
placed  just  forward  of  the  rudders,  and  are 
triangular  in  shape,  but  with  somewhat 
narrow  ends  pointing  toward  the  front. 
Two  of  these  planes  are  carried  horizon- 
tally and  one  vertically,  the  vertical  planes 
being  above  the  horizontals.  The  chief 
fault  of  this  model  is  that  the  rear  horizon- 
tal stability  plane,  being  perfectly  flat,  ex- 
erts little  lifting  power.  The  method  of 
warping  the  tips  of  the  planes,  the  same 
as  in  the  Wright  aeroplane,  works  well 
with  this  model,  and  the  flights,  are  as  a 
rule,  remarkable  steady.  The  machine 
lands  on  wooden  skids,  carried  well  for- 
ward, connected  with  the  frame  by  flexible 
joints.  It  is  supported  in  the  rear  by  two 
wheels  under  the  center  of  the  planes. 

The  Santos  Dumont  monoplane  is,  so 
far,  the  smallest  and  lightest  monoplane 
264 


SUCCESSFUL   MONOPLANES 

to  make  a  successful  flight.  It  is  the  aero- 
nautical runabout,  and,  although  it  has 
made  no  very  extended  air  journeys,  it  has 
introduced  several  interesting  features. 
Its  owner  has  flown  several  miles  across 
country  in  his  little  craft,  housed  it  in  an 
ordinary  stable  while  making  a  call,  and 
then,  starting  from  the  front  lawn,  flown 
home  again  without  assistance  of  any  kind. 
His  machine  may  be  counted  upon  to  fly 
at  the  rate  of  about  thirty-seven  miles  an 
hour.  It  weighs  only  245  pounds  without 
the  pilot. 

The  main  plane  is  set  at  an  angle  so  that, 
seen  from  the  front,  the  wings  rise  from 
the  center,  but  later  bend  down  toward  the 
tips.  The  front  or  entering  edge  is  also 
elevated  to  an  unusually  high  degree,  giv- 
ing it  the  appearance  of  a  rather  flat  um- 
brella. The  pilot  sits  underneath  this 
front  plane  just  below  the  center.  The 
stability  of  this  plane  is  maintained  by  fix- 
ing the  ends  in  the  usual  manner.  The 
wires  connecting  with  the  ends  of  the 
planes,  are  carried  to  a  lever  which  is  at- 
265 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

tached  to  the  pilot's  back.  The  pilot, 
therefore,  without  using  his  hands,  but 
merely  by  swaying  his  body  from  side  to 
side,  can  warp  the  planes  and  bring  his 
craft  to  an  even  keel. 

The  Santos  Dumont  monoplane  carries 
no  regular  stability  plane  at  the  rear,  but 
depends  for  its  support  and  guidance  upon 
a  small  vertical  and  horizontal  rudder  at 
the  end  of  its  very  short  frame.  These  two 
rudders  bisect  one  another,  or  in  other 
words,  half  of  the  vertical  rudder  is  above 
and  half  below  the  horizontal  rudder,  while 
half  of  the  horizontal  rudder  is  on  one  side 
and  half  on  the  other  of  the  vertical  rud- 
der. They  are  attached  to  a  single  rigid 
framework,  so  that  both  move  as  a  whole 
by  means  of  a  universal  joint.  The  rud- 
ders, used  for  ascending  and  descending, 
are  operated  by  a  lever,  while  the  rudders 
used  for  horizontal  steering  are  controlled 
by  a  wheel. 

The  aeroplane  is  mounted  on  two 
wheels,  placed  at  the  front  of  the  frame 
and  a  vertical  strut  at  the  rear,  thus  re- 
266 


SUCCESSFUL   MONOPLANES 

versing  the  arrangement  of  the  Antoinette. 
This  adjustment  works  well  in  practice, 
and  the  Santos  Dumont  holds  the  record 
for  rising  from  the  ground  in  the  shortest 
distance.  It  has  risen  in  six  and  a  quarter 
seconds  after  traveling  only  230  feet.  The 
area  of  its  wings  is  only  no  square  feet 
and  its  propeller  consisting  of  double 
wooden  blades  measures  only  six  feet  three 
inches  in  diameter.  It  carries  a  30  H.  P. 
motor. 

The  R.  E.  P.  monoplane,  the  name  being 
formed  by  the  initials  of  its  inventor, 
Robert  Esnault-Pelterie,  is  an  experiment 
along  new  lines.  Its  inventor  believes  that 
the  wires  and  struts  of  the  monoplane  in 
vibrating,  offer  considerable  resistance  to 
the  air  and  seriously  retard  its  forward 
movement.  His  monoplane  has,  therefore, 
been  constructed  practically  without  stays, 
wires,  or  rods.  The  monoplane  is  grace- 
ful in  form,  light  and  compact,  although 
somewhat  expensive  to  build. 

The  main  frame  of  the  airship  is  made 
of  steel  girders  with  a  broad  surface  and 
269 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

tapering  to  a  sharp  edge  at  the  bottom.  It 
is  covered  completely  with  cloth,  thus 
forming  a  vertical  stability  plane  of  con- 
siderable area.  The  motor  and  propeller 
are  carried  at  the  front  of  the  frame,  while 
the  pilot's  seat  is  fixed  inside  the  frame, 
just  back  of  the  machinery. 

The  main  planes  have  a  span  of  thirty- 
five  feet  six  inches.  They  extend  from 
either  side  of  the  frame,  and  taper  slightly 
toward  their  outer  edges.  Two  large  rud- 
ders are  carried  at  the  rear  of  the  frame. 
The  vertical  rudder  for  horizontal  steering 
is  attached  to  an  extension  of  the  main 
frame  and  the  horizontal  rudder  projects 
from  the  end  at  a  higher  level.  A  fixed 
vertical  stability  plane  or  fin  extends  along 
the  main  frame  back  of  the  pilot's  seat. 
The  warping  of  the  plane  and  the  control 
of  both  rudders  is  accomplished  by  levers 
placed  convenient  to  the  pilot's  hand. 

The  R.  E.  P.  model,  alone  among  the 

aeroplanes,  is  equipped  with  a  four  blade 

propeller.    It  measures  six  feet  six  inches 

in  diameter,  and  is  driven  at  the  speed  of 

270 


SUCCESSFUL   MONOPLANES 

1400  revolutions  per  minute.  The  speed 
of  the  craft  is  remarkable  since  it  has 
flown  for  short  distances  at  the  rate  of 
forty-seven  miles  an  hour.  Its  weight,  780 
pounds,  is  not  unusual. 

An  entirely  new  idea  has  been  intro- 
duced in  mounting  this  model.  It  rests 
upon  only  two  wheels,  one  at  the  front,  the 
other  at  the  end  of  the  central  frame. 
Wheels  are  also  attached  to  the  outer 
edges  of  the  main  plane.  When  at  rest, 
the  model  tilts  over  to  one  side  or  the  other 
and  rests  on  one  of  these  wheels.  Once 
the  motor  has  been  started,  the  machine 
quickly  rights  itself,  as  the  speed  increases, 
and  runs  along  on  two  wheels. 


271 


CHAPTER   VII 

AERIAL   WARFARE 

THE  boys  who  turn  these  pages  may 
some  day  read  of  aerial  battles 
fought  high  above  the  earth,  and  some 
may  even  take  part  in  them.  Air-ships 
are  even  now  included  in  the  navies  of 
nineteen  nations.  There  is  great  differ- 
ence of  opinion  among  experts  whether 
the  balloon  or  aeroplane  will  prove  the 
better  fighting  machine,  but,  meanwhile, 
aeronautical  corps  and  regiments  are  be- 
ing recruited,  formidable  navies  of  air- 
ships are  being  laid  down,  and  special 
guns  are  being  built  to  battle  against 
them. 

The  ordinary  balloon  has  played  a  much 
more  important  part  in  actual  warfare 
than  most  people  realize.  A  balloon  corps 
was  organized  in  France  as  early  as  1794, 
when  balloons  were  built  for  each  of  the 
272 


AERIAL  WARFARE 

Republican  armies.  One  of  these  balloons, 
measuring  thirty  feet  in  diameter,  was  sent 
up  near  Mayence,  to  gain  a  view  of  the 
Austrian  army.  The  balloon  was  held  cap- 
tive by  two  ropes,  and  an  officer  in  the  car 
wrote  his  observations,  weighted  the  let- 
ters, and  dropped  them  overboard.  The 
Austrians  were  furious  at  this  spying,  and 
opened  fire,  but  the  ropes  were  lengthened 
and  the  balloon  rose  to  a  height  of  1300 
feet,  where  it  was  out  of  range.  Several 
years  later  balloons  were  again  used  in 
battles  by  the  French  against  the  Aus- 
trians, who  were  so  angry  with  the  new 
machine  that  they  declared  that  any  bal- 
loonist captured  would  be  shot.  For  a 
long  time  afterward,  however,  this  method 
of  warfare  was  neglected,  and  even  Napo- 
leon could  not  see  its  value,  and  closed  the 
aeronautical  school  and  disbanded  the 
corps. 

The  use  of  the  balloon  was  revived  in 

America  during  the  Civil  War,  and  proved 

to  be  so  valuable  that  no  great  war  has 

since  been  fought  without  it.    During  the 

275 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

attack  on  Richmond,  a  number  of  balloons 
were  sent  up  daily  by  the  Federal  Army 
to  overlook  the  besieged  city.  From  a 
point  eight  miles  away,  valuable  informa- 
tion was  gained  as  to  the  position  of  the 
troops  and  the  earthworks.  A  telegraph 
apparatus  was  taken  up  and  messages 
were  sent  directly  from  the  clouds,  almost 
over  Richmond  to  Washington. 

In  the  Spanish-American  War  in  1898, 
the  balloon  was  again  called  into  use.  One 
ascent  was  made  before  Santiago,  Cuba, 
and  the  position  of  the  various  Spanish 
forces  were  observed  and  reported.  An- 
other was  sent  up  at  El  Paso,  less  than 
2000  feet  from  the  Spanish  trenches,  and 
the  position  of  the  Spanish  troops  on  San 
Juan  Hill  was  discovered.  The  balloon 
was  finally  brought  down  by  the  Spanish 
guns. 

During  the  siege  of  Paris  in  1870,  bal- 
loons were  used  successfully  to  escape 
from  the  city.  Some  sixty-six  of  them, 
carrying  168  passengers,  succeeded  in 
passing  over  the  German  armies.  The 
276 


AERIAL  WARFARE 

French  army  has  also  made  good  use  of 
the  balloon  in  the  wars  in  Madagascar, 
and  several  English  balloon  corps  were 
engaged  with  the  British  army  during  the 
Boer  War. 

For  ordinary  military  work,  balloons  of 
three  sizes  are  used,  a  large  balloon  for 
forts,  the  regular  war  balloon,  and  an 
auxiliary  for  field  work.  The  large  bal- 
loon holds  34,500  cubic  feet  of  gas  and  is 
only  used  above  fortifications.  The  regu- 
lar field  balloon  is  thirty-three  feet  in 
diameter,  and  holds  19,000  cubic  feet  of 
gas.  It  is  designed  to  carry  two  pas- 
sengers to  a  height  of  1650  feet.  The 
auxiliary  balloon  is  considerably  smaller, 
holding  only  9200  cubic  feet  of  gas,  and 
carrying  but  one  passenger.  It  is  much 
easier  to  handle  on  long  marches,  and,  of 
course,  may  be  filled  and  sent  aloft  in  much 
less  time. 

The   balloons    are   usually   filled   from 

cylinders,  which  may  be  hurried  across 

country  in  carts  or  automobiles.    There  is, 

besides,  a  regular  field  gas  generator,  read- 

277 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

ily  packed  up  and  carried  about,  which  will 
fill  an  ordinary  balloon  in  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  minutes.  To  resist  aerial  attacks, 
a  special  armored  automobile  has  been 
adopted  by  some  European  armies,  carry- 
ing a  gun  which  may  be  aimed  upward  and 
at  any  angle.  Despite  its  weight,  the  auto- 
mobile will  travel  at  the  rate  of  forty  miles 
an  hour.  The  recent  developments  of  the 
dirigible  war  balloon  has  rendered  the  free 
balloon  practically  obsolete,  and  it  is  un- 
likely that  it  will  ever  again  be  used  in 
actual  warfare. 

The  United  States  has  been  the  first 
country  to  adopt  the  aeroplane  as  a 
weapon  of  warfare.  After  the  successful 
flights  of  the  Wright  Brothers,  the  War 
Department  purchased  one  of  their  aero- 
planes, and  several  officers  were  instructed 
in  driving  it.  Before  being  accepted,  the 
Wrights  were  required  to  make  a  flight  of 
ten  miles  over  a  rough,  mountainous  coun- 
try near  Washington,  and  return  without 
alighting.  The  test,  which  was  highly 
successful,  was  witnessed  by  President 
278 


The  Machine  on  the  Rails,  as  it  appeared  in  1893. 


Maxim's  First  Aeroplane. 


AERIAL  WARFARE 

Taft  and  many  representatives  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. In  the  event  of  war,  the  United 
States  Government  could  quickly  mobilize 
a  formidable  fleet  of  aeroplanes,  and  man 
them  with  experienced  aviators. 

The  value  of  aeroplanes  in  warfare  has 
been  widely  discussed  by  military  experts. 
There  was,  at  first,  a  general  impression 
that  such  flights  were  much  too  uncertain 
to  be  of  practical  value.  The  marvellous 
development  of  the  aeroplane,  and  its 
remarkable  flights  over  land  and  sea, 
have  served  to  silence  much  of  this  criti- 
cism. 

Although  an  over-sea  invasion  by  a  fleet 
of  air-ships  would  seem  to  be  a  danger  of 
the  very  distant  future,  the  United  States 
Government  is  already  preparing  to  meet 
the  situation.  A  remarkable  series  of  tests 
have  been  made  at  the  Government  Prov- 
ing Grounds  at  Sandy  Hook,  by  firing  at 
free  balloons  as  they  sailed  past  the  fort. 
The  balloons  were  sent  away  at  various 
altitudes,  in  some  cases  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  guns,  and  again  directly 
281 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

above  them.  The  difficulty  in  hitting  such 
targets  was  found  to  be  very  great.  The 
air  craft  moves  so  quickly  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  bring  a  gun  of  the  ordinary 
mounting  into  position.  Although  the  re- 
sults of  the  test  were  closely  guarded,  it  is 
known  that  the  Government  was  not  satis- 
fied with  the  defense  of  New  York  Harbor, 
in  the  event  of  an  aerial  invasion,  and 
special  guns  are  being  designed  to  repel 
such  an  attack. 

The  military  authorities  look  very  far 
into  the  future  in  their  preparations.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  of  these  problems 
is  that  of  protecting  our  seacoast,  should 
a  fleet  of  aerial  warships  be  sent  against 
us.  One  of  the  plans  suggested  is  to  raise 
a  series  of  captive  balloons  at  regular  in- 
tervals along  the  shore.  It  has  been 
thought  that  some  of  these  might  be  held 
near  the  earth,  while  others  are  allowed 
to  ascend  to  a  great  altitude.  The  lookout 
in  these  signal  stations  could  sight  the  ap- 
proach of  an  hostile  fleet  of  air-ships  at  a 
great  distance,  and  by  means  of  wireless 
282 


AERIAL  WARFARE 

apparatus  warn  the  country  of  approach- 
ing danger. 

Many  military  experts,  who  have 
watched  the  flights  of  aeroplanes,  have  de- 
cided that  the  little  craft  would  also  prove 
an  extremely  difficult  object  for  the  enemy 
to  bring  down.  Since  they  travel  at  up- 
wards of  a  mile  a  minute,  ordinary  guns, 
as  they  are  now  mounted,  could  not  hope 
to  hit  them  except  by  a  lucky  shot.  It 
would  be  like  hunting  wild  geese  with  a 
cannon.  At  a  height  of  several  thousand 
feet,  which  they  can  readily  attain,  an 
aeroplane  might  defy  the  most  formidable 
batteries  in  the  world.  Should  a  fleet  of 
these  little  craft  be  sent  against  an  enemy, 
many  of  them  would  be  sure  to  survive  an 
attack,  even  if  a  few  should  be  lost.  It 
does  not  seem  probable  that  the  aeroplane 
will  carry  aloft  a  cannon  large  enough  to 
do  any  damage.  But  they  can  drop  high 
explosives,  with  astonishing  accuracy,  and 
would  do  important  scout  work. 

At  the  present  cost  of  construction,  a 
fleet  of  one  hundred  aeroplanes  might  be 
283 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

built  and  put  in  commission  in  the  field  or 
sky,  for  what  a  single  great  battleship 
would  cost.  It  has  been  shown,  moreover, 
that  a  man  can  learn  to  operate  an  aero- 
plane in  less  time  than  it  takes  to  learn  to 
ride  a  bicycle.  The  Wrights  instructed 
Lieutenant  Lahm  to  drive  one  of  their 
machines  in  about  two  hours  of  actual 
flight.  The  war  aeroplanes  would  call  for 
great  bravery  and  daring,  but  who  can 
doubt  that  men  would  be  found  to  serve 
their  country,  if  need  be,  by  facing  this 
appalling  danger. 

In  military  language,  the  modern  air- 
ships fall  into  three  classes,  dreadnaughts, 
cruisers  and  scouts.  The  dreadnaughts  of 
the  air  are  the  largest  dirigible  balloons, 
such  as  Zeppelin  flies.  They  will  prob- 
ably be  used  in  aerial  warfare  in  the  first 
line  of  battle,  and  for  over-sea  work.  The 
cruisers  comprise  the  dirigibles,  such  as 
have  been  brought  to  great  perfection  in 
France.  These  faster  air-ships  will  rise 
higher  than  the  dreadnaughts,  and  will 
probably  be  used  for  guarding  and  scout 


a  'S- 


AERIAL  WARFARE 

work.  The  aeroplanes  come  under  the 
head  of  scouts,  and  will  be  used  for  dis- 
patch work,  and  for  attacking  dirigibles. 

Their  speed  and  effective  radius  of 
travel  place  the  air-ship  in  the  first  rank 
among  the  engines  of  war.  The  value  of 
the  free  or  captive  balloon  has,  of  course, 
been  clearly  proven.  It  has  been  of  the 
greatest  value  for  general  observation 
work  in  the  field.  It  has  been  readily 
raised  out  of  effective  range  of  the  enemy's 
batteries,  and  from  this  position,  has 
looked  down  upon  the  forts,  cities,  or  en- 
campments. It  thus  became  a  signal  sta- 
tion which  might  direct  gun  fire  with  abso- 
lute accuracy,  and  has  been  the  only  safe 
and  reliable  method  for  locating  the  pres- 
ence of  mines  and  submarines. 

The  dirigible  balloon  possesses  all  of 
the  qualities  of  the  free  balloon  and  many 
more.  It  can  attack  by  day  or  night.  Its 
search  lights  enable  it  to  look  down  upon 
the  enemy  with  pitiless  accuracy.  It  may 
thus  gain  information  about  forts  and  har- 
bors, which  otherwise  could  not  be  ap- 
287 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

preached.  The  most  completely  mined 
harbor  in  the  world  has  no  terrors  for  such 
a  visitor.  The  great  problem  in  warfare 
of  patrolling  the  frontier  of  a  country 
against  possible  invasion  seems  to  be 
solved  by  the  dirigible.  Two  or  three  men 
aboard  a  dirigible,  with  a  traveling  radius 
of  several  hundred  miles,  could  do  more 
effective  work  than  several  thousand  men 
scattered  along  the  frontier  line. 

For  dispatch  work  the  flying  machine  is 
expected  to  be  indispensable  in  warfare. 
The  bearer  of  dispatches  has  always 
played  an  important  part  in  war.  His 
work  is  often  of  the  most  perilous  nature, 
and  his  journeys,  at  best,  are  slow  and  un- 
certain. The  dispatch  bearer,  driving  an 
air-ship  fifty  miles  an  hour,  could  ride  high 
above  the  range  of  the  enemy's  guns. 
These  same  vehicles  of  the  air  would 
doubtless  be  equipped  with  wireless  tele- 
graph apparatus,  so  that  they  might  send 
or  receive  messages,  and  the  aviator  might 
talk  freely  with  the  entire  country  side, 
directing  a  battery  here,  silencing  one 
'288 


AERIAL  WARFARE 

there,  ordering  an  advance  or  conducting 
a  retreat,  with  unprecedented  accuracy. 

These  aerial  fleets  may  also  carry  on 
deadly  aggressive  warfare.  The  over  sea 
raid  will  have  greater  terror  than  any  or- 
dinary invasion.  A  fleet  of  dreadnaughts 
dirigibles,  assisted  by  fast  cruisers  of  the 
air,  and  many  aeroplane  scouts,  would  be 
extremely  formidable.  An  enemy's  base 
line  would  be  at  the  mercy  of  such  an  in- 
vasion. Within  a  few  hours,  such  a  fleet 
might  destroy  the  enemy's  stores,  its  rail- 
roads, and  its  cities,  by  dropping  explo- 
sives or  poisonous  bombs. 

In  several  recent  aeroplane  flights, 
"  peace  bombs  "  have  been  aimed  to  strike 
a  given  mark,  and  the  shots  have  proven 
surprisingly  accurate.  By  using  various 
instruments  to  determine  directions,  it  will 
be  possible  to  drop  such  bombs  with 
mathematical  accuracy.  The  bombs  or 
missiles  will  be  suspended  by  wires  from 
beneath  the  air-ship  and  released  by  an 
electric  current,  to  give  them  a  perfectly 
vertical  direction.  When  dropped  from 

289 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

great  altitudes,  the  effect  of  such  explo- 
sions will  be  difficult  to  withstand.  Our 
great  war-ships,  despite  their  steel  sides, 
will  probably  have  to  be  completely  re- 
modelled before  they  can  fight  with  this 
new  enemy. 

When  an  air-ship  drops  a  bomb  from  a 
point  directly  above  a  fort  or  ship,  it  will 
be  absolutely  out  of  the  range  of  the 
enemy,  since  to  shoot  directly  up  into  the 
air  would  be  to  fire  a  boomerang  which 
would  quickly  return  and  inflict  serious 
damage.  An  actual  test  was  recently  car- 
ried out  in  England,  when  a  thirteen  pound 
gun  fired  at  a  balloon  1000  feet  in  the  air. 
Although  the  gun  had  an  effective  range 
of  4000  feet,  and  the  balloon  was  held  cap- 
tive, it  was  not  until  the  seventeenth  shot 
had  been  fired  that  it  was  brought  down. 
It  has  also  been  proven  that  a  rifle  ball  will 
be  deflected  by  the  draught  from  the  pro- 
peller of  an  aeroplane.  The  flying 
machine  promises  to  revolutionize  war- 
fare. 


290 


CHAPTER   VIII 

SPORTS   OF   THE   AIR,   AEROPLANES 

ANY  contest  of  air-ships  makes  excel- 
lent sport.  A  city  to  city  flight  by 
aeroplane,  for  instance,  attracts  greater 
crowds  than  could  any  procession  or  royal 
progress  in  the  past.  The  aeronautical 
tournaments  and  meets  already  have  been 
held  from  Egypt  in  the  East,  to  California 
in  the  west.  Let  an  aeroplane  soar  higher 
than  any  has  risen  before,  stay  aloft 
longer,  or  make  a  new  record  for  speed  or 
distance,  and  the  news  is  instantly  cabled 
around  the  world. 

All  who  have  gone  aloft  tell  us  that  fly- 
ing is  the  greatest  sport  in  the  world.  The 
free,  rapid  glide  we  all  enjoy  in  skating  or 
coasting  becomes  speedier  and  smoother 
in  an  air-ship,  without  exerting  the  least 
effort.  It  is  this  sense  of  rapid  motion 
293 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

which  has  made  the  automobile  so  popular, 
and  the  air-ship  improves  upon  the  auto- 
mobile, just  as  the  automobile  improved  on 
the  lumbering  coaches  of  the  past.  Once 
aloft,  the  aerial  passenger  glides  with  the 
swallow's  swiftness.  "  Now,"  cried  an 
enthusiastic  Frenchwoman,  after  her  first 
aeroplane  flight,  "  now  I  understand  why 
the  birds  sing." 

As  the  aeroplane  is  brought  under  better 
control,  we  will  see  these  contests  grow 
more  and  more  exciting.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  new  craft  has  been  so  rapid, 
we  have  come  to  expect  so  much  from  it, 
that  the  exhibition  at  which  the  world 
marvels  to-day,  becomes  the  commonplace 
of  to-morrow. 

The  early  flights  of  the  Wright  Brothers 
at  Kitty  Hawk  failed  to  attract  much  at- 
tention. There  had  been  so  many  an- 
nouncements of  successful  flying  machines 
that  many  were  sceptical,  especially  in 
Europe,  and  the  world  did  not  realize  that 
the  great  day,  so  long  promised,  was 
dawning.  It  was  not  till  the  Wrights  flew 
294 


SPORTS  OF  THE  AIR 

in  North  Carolina  that  the  world  began  to 
take  the  matter  seriously. 

Every  movement  of  the  curious  new 
craft  was  closely  watched  thereafter. 
When  one  of  the  brothers  went  aloft  the 
world  knew  it,  and  crowds  stood  patiently 
before  bulletin  boards  in  New  York, 
London,  or  Sidney,  to  count  the  minutes. 
When  he  succeeded  in  staying  aloft  for 
an  hour,  the  waiting  crowds  in  many 
widely  separated  cities,  broke  into  simul- 
taneous cheers.  Next  came  the  trip  to 
Paur,  in  France,  and  other  European 
cities,  and  day  by  day  the  flights  became 
longer  and  higher.  The  brothers  made 
double  progress,  for  while  one  was  in 
Southern  Europe  increasing  the  time  aloft, 
the  other  was  flying  higher  and  higher  in 
Germany.  In  these  early  days  no  attempt 
was  made  to  fly  across  the  country.  The 
aeroplane  merely  flew  around  and  around 
some  large  field,  and  the  distance  tra- 
versed was  calculated  more  or  less  accu- 
rately. 

After  the  triumphant  return  of  the 
295 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

Wrights  to  America,  a  cross-country  run 
was  made  at  Fort  Myer,  to  show  the  Gov- 
ernment that  the  aeroplane  was  more  than 
a  toy.  A  flight  of  twenty  miles  was  made 
over  a  rough,  mountainous  country  and 
several  deep  valleys.  The  air  of  the  valleys 
drew  the  machine  down  with  a  dangerous 
rush,  but  the  aviator  pluckily  worked  his 
way  higher,  and  passed  over  it  in  safety. 

Shortly  after  this,  during  the  Hudson- 
Fulton  Celebration  in  New  York,  Mr.  Wil- 
bur Wright  rose  from  Governor's  Island  in 
New  York  harbor,  encircled  the  Statue  of 
Liberty,  and  again  sailed  high  above  the 
river  north  to  Grant's  Tomb,  and  returned 
to  the  starting  point.  Each  of  these  feats 
was,  in  a  peculiar  sense,  record  breaking. 

Meanwhile,  a  flock  of  aviators  were 
making  ascensions  in  biplanes  and  mono- 
planes of  many  designs  in  France.  Their 
first  attempts  to  fly  were  made,  as  a  rule, 
in  a  great  field  on  the  outskirts  of  Paris, 
where  immense  crowds  gathered  to  watch 
them.  As  the  aviators  gained  confidence 
in  their  craft,  the  flights  rapidly  became 
296 


Front  View  of  the  Flight  of  the  Wright  Aeroplane,  October  4,  IQ05- 


SPORTS  OF  THE  AIR 

longer  and  higher,  and  short  cross-country 
flights  were  made.  These  cross-country 
and  over-water  flights  quickly  out-dis- 
tanced those  made  in  America,  and  this 
lead  once  gained,  was  kept  up.  There  are 
several  reasons  why  France,  after  America 
pointed  the  way,  should  have  overtaken, 
and,  in  some  respects,  out-distanced  her. 
There  have  been  more  aviators  in  France. 
The  prizes  offered  for  flights  of  various 
kinds,  have  been  ten  times  more  numerous 
and  valuable  in  France  than  in  any  other 
country,  and  this  naturally  invited  compe- 
tition. The  example  of  France  in  offering 
valuable  prizes  for  long  flights  has  since 
been  followed  in  the  United  States. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  again,  that 
the  level  stretches  of  country  common  in 
Europe,  offers  fewer  difficulties  for  the 
pilot  of  the  aeroplane  than  the  rough, 
mountainous,  or  even  hilly  country  often 
encountered  in  America.  It  is  possible  to 
fly  hundreds  of  miles  in  the  south  of 
France  or  in  Italy  and  pass  over  country 
like  a  great  parade  ground.  When  a  long- 
299 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

distance  flight  is  made  in  America,  rival- 
ling or  surpassing  those  made  abroad,  it  is 
probable  that  it  has  required  far  more  skill 
and  daring  than  similar  European  flights. 
The  French,  again,  excel  in  building  light, 
serviceable  motors,  suitable  for  aeroplanes, 
and  no  small  part  of  the  success  of  the 
French  air  craft  is  due  to  this  skill. 

The  cross-country  trips  were  quickly  ex- 
tended. After  several  successful  short 
flights,  Henry  Farman  surpassed  all  rec- 
ords by  traveling  for  eighty-three  miles 
across  country  in  France.  The  great  feat 
was  now  to  cross  the  English  Channel.  A 
prize  of  $5,000  was  offered  by  a  London 
newspaper  for  the  first  channel  flight. 
Two  attempts  were  made  by  a  young 
Frenchman,  Hubert  Latham,  but  both 
times,  after  sailing  out  for  several  miles 
over  the  sea,  some  accident  befell  his 
machine,  and  he  was  thrown  into  the 
water.  Undaunted  by  these  failures,  an- 
other Frenchman,  Louis  Bleriot,  started 
early  one  Sunday  morning,  June  25,  1909, 
from  a  point  near  Calais,  France,  and 
300 


SPORTS  OF  THE  AIR 

landed  safely  at  Dover  on  the  English  side. 
Shortly  after  this,  still  another  French- 
man, De  Lesseps,  flew  from  the  French 
coast  to  England  in  safety. 

The  richest  of  the  aviation  prizes,  a 
purse  of  $50,000,  had  meanwhile  been  of- 
fered for  a  successful  trip  by  a  heavier- 
than-air  machine  from  London  to  Man- 
chester, a  distance  of  171  miles.  Several 
attempts  had  been  made  to  cover  this  dis- 
tance, but  without  success.  It  was  finally 
won,  however,  under  very  dramatic  cir- 
cumstances. Two  aviators,  an  English- 
man named  White  and  a  Frenchman 
named  Paulhan,  actually  raced  for  the 
goal.  The  French  machine  got  away  first, 
but  was  followed  by  the  English  machine 
close  on  his  heels  —  or  should  we  say  pro- 
pellers ?  The  greater  part  of  the  race  took 
place  at  night  in  a  high  wind,  and,  in  the 
upper  air  lanes,  intensely  cold  weather. 

Paulhan  succeeded  in  flying  117  miles 

without    coming    down,    rushing    along 

through  the  night  at  top  speed,  with  the 

dread  that  every  sound  behind  him  came 

301 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

from  the  machine  of  his  rival.  When  he 
was  forced  to  land  for  fuel,  he  worked  with 
feverish  haste,  fearing  that  every  second's 
delay  might  cost  him  the  coveted  prize. 
Several  times  the  crowd  about  him, 
deceived  by  some  night  bird,  cried 
"Here  comes  White!"  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  White  was  but  a  few  miles  behind. 
The  fuel  tank  filled,  Paulhan  drove  his 
machine  full  speed  into  the  sky,  and  did 
not  land  till  he  had  completed  the  journey 
and  won  the  prize. 

There  was  naturally  a  great  demand  for 
a  similar  journey  in  America,  and  the  avia- 
tor and  the  prize  were  soon  found.  For 
several  years  there  had  been  a  standing 
prize  of  $10,000  for  the  first  successful 
flight  between  New  York  and  Albany,  over 
the  Hudson  River,  the  course  taken  by 
Robert  Fulton  in  his  famous  trip  by  steam- 
boat in  1809.  An  effort  was  made  to 
cover  the  distance  by  dirigible  balloon 
without  success.  An  attempt  was  made  by 
aeroplane  on  May,  1910,  by  Glenn  H.  Cur- 
tiss,  the  winner  of  the  grand  prize  for  speed 
302 


SPORTS  OF  THE  AIR 

in  the  aviation  meeting  at  Rheims.  Curtis 
started  from  Albany,  in  order  to  face  the 
air  currents  which  drew  up  the.  river. 
After  waiting  for  several  days  for  fair 
weather,  he  finally  got  away  early  one 
morning,  and,  following  the  course  of  the 
Hudson  River,  made  the  flight  to  Pough- 
keepsie,  seventy-five  miles  south,  without 
mishap,  when  he  landed  for  fuel. 

Again  rising  into  the  air,  he  started 
south,  traveling  with  such  speed,  that  he 
outdistanced  the  special  train  which  was 
following  him.  A  difficult  problem  in  avia- 
tion was  met  in  passing  over  the  High- 
lands, a  rugged  mountainous  section, 
through  which  the  river  cuts  a  deep.,  tor- 
tuous channel.  Curtiss  rose  to  a  height  of 
more  than  1000  feet,  but  the  treacherous 
air  currents  drew  him  down  and  tossed 
him  about  at  perilous  angles.  He  fought 
his  way,  foot  by  foot,  finally  bringing  his 
craft  to  an  even  keel.  On  reaching  New 
York,  he  landed  in  the  upper  section  of  the 
city  for  gasolene,  and  once  more  rising 
above  the  Hudson  River,  flew  swiftly  to 
303 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

the  riotous  clamor  of  every  whistle  in  the 
great  harbor  beneath  him,  to  a  safe  landing 
at  Governor's  Island. 

The  first  great  city  to  city  and  return 
aeroplane  trip  was  made  a  few  days  later, 
between  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  A 
new  aspirant  for  these  honors  was  Mr. 
Charles  K.  Hamilton,  who  had  amazed 
everyone  with  his  daring  driving.  He  was 
engaged  to  fly  over  the  course  for  $10,000, 
offered  by  a  New  York  and  a  Philadelphia 
newspaper.  He  carried  with  him  letters 
from  the  Governor  of  New  York  and  the 
Mayor  of  New  York  City  to  the  Governor 
of  Pennsylvania  and  the  Mayor  of  Phila- 
delphia. He  also  took  aloft  a  number  of 
"  peace  bombs,"  which  he  dropped  along 
the  route  to  show  how  accurate  might  be 
the  aim  of  a  war  aeroplane.  The  start  was 
made  early  on  the  morning  of  June  13, 
from  Governor's  Island  in  New  York  har- 
bor. A  special  train  was  held  in  readiness 
to  follow  him. 

After  rising  to  a  considerable  altitude, 
Hamilton  flew  in  great  circles  about  the 
304 


SPORTS  OF  THE  AIR 

island  to  try  his  wings,  and  then,  signaling 
that  all  was  ready,  darted  off  to  the  south. 
He  quickly  picked  up  his  special  train,  and, 
at  a  pace  of  almost  a  mile  a  minute,  flying 
hundreds  of  feet  in  air,  sped  on  to  Phila- 
delphia. It  was  estimated  that  more  than 
1,000,000  people  had  gathered  along  the 
route  to  cheer  him.  Hamilton  had  laid  out 
a  regular  time-table  before  starting,  and 
so  perfect  was  his  control  of  the  machine, 
that  he  passed  town  after  town  on  time 
to  the  minute  like  a  railroad  train. 

The  run  to  Philadelphia  eighty  miles 
away,  was  made  without  alighting  and 
without  mishap  of  any  kind.  Hamilton 
flew  over  the  open  field  selected  for  land- 
ing, circled  it  three  times  to  show  that  he 
was  not  tired  in  the  least,  and  settled  down 
as  lightly  as  a  bird.  He  was  received  by 
the  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Deputy  Mayor  of  Philadelphia,  to  whom 
he  delivered  his  messages  and  received 
similar  letters  in  reply  to  bring  back  to 
New  York. 

After  a  brief  rest  of  little  more  than  one 
305 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

hour,  Hamilton  was  once  more  in  the  sky, 
flying  across-country  at  express  speed. 
He  set  such  a  pace,  that  his  special  train 
was  left  far  behind,  and  it  was  only  by  run- 
ning at  the  rate  of  seventy-five  miles  an 
hour,  that  it  finally  overtook  him.  Hamil- 
ton drew  far  ahead  of  the  train  on  the  re- 
turn trip  which  was  made  in  much  faster 
time.  The  wind  was  favorable,  and  New- 
ark, eighty  miles,  was  reached  at  the  rate 
of  fifty  miles  an  hour. 

With  the  goal  practically  in  sight,  Ham- 
ilton's engine  began  working  badly.  He 
pushed  on,  until  he  found  himself  in  abso- 
lute danger,  when  he  decided  to  descend. 
From  such  high  altitudes,  the  appearance 
of  the  ground  is  very  deceptive.  Hamilton 
chose  what  appeared  to  be  a  smooth  piece 
of  green  grass  and  dropped  to  it,  only  to 
discover  that  he  had  settled  in  a  marsh. 
The  fault  in  the  engine  was  quickly  rem- 
edied, but  now  the  ground  proved  too  soft 
for  him  to  rise.  In  trying  to  rise  he 
broke  his  propeller,  and  another  delay  fol- 
lowed, while  a  new  propeller  was  hurried 
306 


SPORTS  OF  THE  AIR 

from  New  York.  He  finally  succeeded, 
however,  in  rising  and  completing  his 
trip  to  Governor's  Island,  thus  making 
the  round  trip  in  a  day  and  winning  the 
prize. 

So  rapid  is  the  advance  in  the  new  sci- 
ence, that  each  aviation  meet  sets  a  new 
and  more  difficult  standard.  At  first, 
people  marvelled  to  see  an  aeroplane  rising 
but  a  few  feet  from  the  ground,  but  such 
feats  soon  became  commonplace.  Within 
a  few  months,  prizes  were  offered  for  the 
machine  staying  aloft  for  the  longest  time. 
The  element  of  speed  was  next  considered, 
and  the  aeroplanes  sailed  around  a  race 
course  against  time.  The  highest  altitude 
now  became  a  popular  test  feat.  The  pi- 
lots soon  found  themselves  in  such  com- 
plete control  of  their  machines  that  they 
gave  exhibitions  of  landing  by  the  force  of 
gravity  alone.  The  aeroplane  would  work 
its  way  upward  in  great  spirals,  and  then, 
shutting  off  all  power,  coast  down  at  terri- 
fying angles  on  the  unsubstantial  air.  It 
is  from  such  tests  as  these  that  there  will 
307 


MODEL  AEROPLANES 

gradually  evolve  the  airships  of  the  future, 
the  terrible  engines  of  war,  the  air  liners 
for  commerce,  and  the  light  and  speedy 
pleasure  craft. 


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